<p>Belvedere Lagoon is an artificial lagoon on San Francisco Bay in Belvedere in Marin County, California. Narrow strips of land separate it from Richardson Bay  and Raccoon Strait.</p><br>
<p>The lagoon is owned and maintained by the Belvedere Lagoon Property Owners&#39; Association. The lagoon is not accessible by boat from San Francisco Bay, and no public access is provided. Until somewhat late in the 20th century houseboats were present in Belvedere Lagoon.</p><br>
<p>There used to be a natural passage between the lagoon and the San Francisco Bay through the southern spit. The passage was spanned by a drawbridge. This raising of the drawbridge signaled the beginning of the pleasure boat season. In 1917, that informal celebration morphed into a more formal and elaborate parade of boats that has now evolved into the Opening Day on the Bay involving the 104 clubs of the Pacific Inter-Club Yacht Association.</p><br>
<p>Belvedere Lagoon was partially filled after World War II to provide building sites for tract houses and to improve access to Belvedere Island. It was also once the site of a 9-hole golf course.</p><br>
<p>Old Main is the oldest building on the campus of Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois. Completed in 1857, it is a distinctive Gothic Tudor design of Swedish architect Charles Ulricson. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961 as one of the few surviving sites to host one of the famous 1858 Lincoln–Douglas debates. The building underwent a major restoration in the 1930s, which modernized its interior and restored its exterior.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Old Main is located on the north side of the Knox College campus, south of South Street between Alumni Hall and George Davis Hall. It is a three-story masonry structure, built out of brick with limestone and concrete trim. It is designed in part to resemble England&#39;s Hampton Court Palace, with a pair of projecting polygonal towers topped by crenellated parapets flanking its main entrance. The entrance is itself in a projecting section, in a rounded-arch opening set beneath a tall Gothic-arched window. Limestone stringcourses run between the first and second floors, and above the third floor.</p><br>
<p>Old Main was completed in 1857, and is the oldest surviving building on the Knox College campus. It was designed by Charles Ulricson, a Swedish-trained architect working out of Peoria. At the time, the campus included Old Main and two dormitories, neither of which has survived. Old Main housed most of the school&#39;s academic functions for many years, including classrooms and a chapel. By the early 1930s it was in deteriorating condition, and underwent a major restoration. The interior was gutted, replaced by a flooring system of steel and concrete, while interior brick and stone were recycled to repair the exterior. Portions of the limestone trim were replaced with cast concrete at this time. In 1969, a tornado took off the belfry and part of the roof; these were rebuilt in the original style.</p><br>
<h2>Lincoln-Douglas debate</h2><br>
<p>On October 7, 1858, Old Main was the site of the fifth in the celebrated series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas, then both running for the United States Senate. The debate was conducted on a platform constructed in front of the building, which the debaters reached by climbing through its windows. The college community, founded by abolitionists, strung a banner behind the platform which read "Knox College for Lincoln". The debate was attended by an crowd estimated at 15,000. The National Historic Landmark designation, made in 1961, includes the college grounds to the east where most of the crowd sat.</p><br>
<p>Mason School is located at 1012 South 24th Street in south Omaha, Nebraska, United States. Designed in the Richardson Romanesque style by the architectural firm of Mendelssohn, Fisher and Lawrie, the school was built in 1888 by the brick manufacturing and construction firm of Hadden, Rocheford & Gould. The school closed in the late 1970s and was converted into apartments. It was designated an Omaha Landmark in 1986 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places that same year.</p><br>
<h2>About</h2><br>
<p>Mason School is a two-story brick building named in honor of Charles Mason, a Nebraska Supreme Court Justice in the early years of the state.</p><br>
<p>When the school was built in 1888, it was located on the western fringe of Omaha on an unpaved South 24th Street. At the time it was opened, it was the largest elementary school in Omaha, with sixteen classrooms. The first principal was Jennie McKoons, with a staff of five teachers. When it first opened the school had 326 students; however, within a few years it expanded so rapidly that three wooden additions had to be constructed to accommodate the student body. They were replaced in 1936 with a brick addition.</p><br>
<p>In 1989 the building was renovated and turned into apartments.</p><br>
<p>Industrialist and philanthropist Peter Kiewit was among the school&#39;s notable students.</p><br>
<p>The Chick House is a former hotel building constructed in 1857 in the city of Rockford, Illinois, United States. The building&#39;s construction was financed by three Rockford citizens and it operated as a hotel from its opening until 1951. The hotel was purchased by Thomas Chick in 1888 and he renamed it from the Griggs House to the Chick House. In 2004 the city of Rockford purchased two-thirds of the building and made some modifications to the structure. The building is a mesh between the Greek Revival and Italianate styles and feature simple ornamentation that contrasts with a neighboring building. The Chick House is a Rockford Landmark and was listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places in 1997.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Chick House is located in present-day downtown Rockford, Illinois, directly across the street from the Rockford MetroCentre. The Chick House was constructed in 1857 under the name Griggs House on the northwest corner of Main and Elm Streets in downtown Rockford. Its construction was financed by three Rockford residents, Dr. R.P. Lane, and two bankers, Thomas D. Robertson, and Charles H. Spafford. From its construction in 1888 the building operated as the Griggs House hotel. Thomas Chick purchased the building in 1888 and rechristened the hotel as Chick House. Through the early 1900s parts of the buildings were occupied by various tenants as Chick leased out space, and Chick rented out space in adjacent buildings to supply additional lodging space for the Chick House hotel.</p><br>
<p>Rates at the Chick House, in 1902, started at US$1.50 per day, compared to the Nelson House at $2.00 per day; the Nelson House opened in Rockford in 1892. In 1903 the Rockford Morning Star called the Chick House and the Nelson House the leading hotels in Rockford. The same article noted the popularity of the Chick House with commercial travelers, regular boarders, and Sunday diners.</p><br>
<p>In 1923, Thomas Chicks widow sold the Chick House to John A. Saye of Milwaukee. The Chick House, considered one of Rockfords resident hotels, was one of 23 hotels, and the oldest in the city when it sold in 1923. The Chick House remained in operation until 1928. The building was sold and closed for a time for renovations. During its closure, an office supply store, hardware store, and shoe store occupied the east end of the structure. In 1929 the hotel reopened under the name Elms Hotel, it remained in operation as such until 1951.</p><br>
<p>In 2004 the city of Rockford purchased two-thirds of the Chick House with the intention of redeveloping the historic property. In October the city shut off gas and water, in part because of an old boiler which would not survive another winter; the electricity remained on during this time. The city set about to make immediate repairs to prevent the building from deteriorating structurally. The work included the installation of Plexiglas windows to keep further moisture out, the installation of a green awning on the east facade which wraps around to the south slightly, and repairs to the parapet wall.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Chick Houses design is simple and utilitarian, reflecting its construction for use as a hotel. The three-story brick structures 66 foot (20.1 m) east facade faces Main Street and its 149-foot (45.4 m) south facade faces toward Elm Street. The building incorporates elements from Greek Revival and Italianate styles and presents itself as an architectural "antithesis" to the adjacent Richardson Romanesque Stewart Building. The Chick House originally has an "L" shape but additions during the 1890s, 1900s and in 1932 partially filled in the rear of the building, which faces toward an alley.</p><br>
<p>The utilitarian design of the Chick House is accented by simple decorative touches in the Greek Revival style. The style is most overt in the building&#39;s symmetry which is particularly emphasized by certain elements. Those include the steeped parapet, its windows, horizontal stone sills and lintels, and dentil moldings.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s meshing of Greek Revival and Italianate styles illustrates the rising popularity of the Italianate style during the 1850s and the shift from Greek Revival to Italianate. The narrow front facade windows, and the brick corbel table frieze at the cornice are two elements of Italianate incorporated into the building. The Romanesque and Italianate detailing is emphasized within the front facade fenestration as well. The windows contain segmental arches and cast iron hood molds.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>The Chick House is one of three remaining pre-Civil War commercial buildings in downtown Rockford.</p><br>
<p>Breaksea Island in King George Sound in the Great Southern region of Western Australia is 12 km south-east of Albany.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The island was declared a nature reserve in 1969) managed by the Department of Environment and Conservation; its reserve number is 27614. The island is also registered as a national estate. The island is 103 hectare in area, 3 km in length, and 600 m at its widest part. The closest island is Michaelmas Island, located 1.5 km north of Breaksea Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was named by George Vancouver during his expedition in 1791. While in the area he also took possession of the lands for England. He named the island after its beaten appearance and the protection it offered to the landward side from the south-westerly winds.</p><br>
<p>In early April 1827, the island was visited by Major Edmund Lockyer, who found that the island, which has been previously assumed to be bare rock, actually featured between eight and ten acres of soil. He also noted the presence of seals, little penguins, sooty petrels, quail and bronze-winged pigeons.</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouse</h2><br>
<p>A lighthouse was built on the island in 1858 by English convicts using pre-made cast iron sheeting. This lighthouse was replaced in 1902 by a cylindrical granite tower which remains in good condition.</p><br>
<p>The Great Northern Depot in Princeton, Minnesota, United States, is a former passenger and freight depot on the Great Northern Railway. The building is a combination of Queen Anne and Jacobean architectural styles, built of local brick with sandstone trim. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>The Elk River-Milaca Line</h2><br>
<p>The Great Northern Railway originally did not travel through Princeton, it ran from Minneapolis through Elk River and on to St. Cloud. Another line ran from St. Cloud through Milaca to Duluth. Great Northern mogul James J. Hill challenged local business owners to raise $50,000 to route the line through Princeton. The money was raised, and the Elk River-Milaca line was slated to be built.</p><br>
<p>Surveying for the route began in late March 1886, and the track-laying crew started building the new line from Elk River on October 24, 1886. With few obstacles to construction, the line was finished quickly, and rail service began on November 29, 1886. The new Princeton route actually shortened the distance between Minneapolis and Duluth.</p><br>
<p>Initially service was frequent, but in November 1899 the route to Duluth was relocated to a line passing further east, connecting through Coon Rapids, Cambridge and Brook Park (known as the Coon Creek Cutoff or the Bee Line). As a result, service on the Elk River-Milaca line went into a long, drawn-out decline, with luxury passenger cars being replaced with ordinary coaches in 1908, the USA Mail route being lost in 1930, and passenger service terminated altogether in 1952. Freight service continued until 1976, at which time the Elk River-Milaca line was abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>The New Depot</h2><br>
<p>The Princeton depot was built in 1902 at a cost of $15,594, replacing a wooden-frame structure. The dedication ceremony was well-attended, with a crowd of at least 500 people. The size of the depot, at a length of 215 feet, a height of 35 feet, and a width exceeding 37 feet, made it the largest building in Princeton. The main products shipped from the depot were agricultural and forest commodities, along with a substantial amount of brick from a brickyard two miles north of Princeton.</p><br>
<p>The Preservation Alliance of Minnesota listed this depot on its 2010 list of the 10 Most Endangered Historic Places in Minnesota. The building has since received a grant from the Minnesota Historical Society and is being restored.</p><br>
<h2>Mille Lacs County Historical Society Depot Museum</h2><br>
<p>Today, the depot is the home of the Mille Lacs County Historical Society Depot Museum, with railroad cars and track placed next to the building. Railroad cars on-site include a 1963 Milwaukee Road insulated boxcar, a 1925 Wooden Milwaukee Road boxcar, a 1963 Burlington Northern wide-vision steel caboose, and a 1963 Great Northern flat car used for concerts in the summer. Also on site is the 1856 "District 1" one-room schoolhouse, which was the first school in Mille Lacs County.</p><br>
<h2>Three Sisters</h2><br>
<p>The Princeton depot was one of three "sister" stations in the Great Northern system that had essentially the same design. One of her "sisters" was about 70 miles southwest of Princeton in Litchfield, Minnesota and the other one was about 1,700 miles to the west in Bellingham, Washington. Some of the materials and trim were different, but the design was almost identical. The other two "sisters" are long gone (the Bellingham depot burned in 1924, Litchfield razed their depot in 1985). The Princeton Great Northern depot is the sole survivor.</p><br>
<p>Kanalia  is a village in Thessaly, Greece, part of the municipality Rigas Feraios. It is located 26 km from Volos and at a height of 80 m above the sea level. It is one of the prettiest on the north-west side of Pelion. It is built on the foundation of the Acropolis Voivis in the plains of Metochi. On the hill above the village one can see the remains of the walls of ancient Voivis, the Homeric Boebe , as well as the ruins of three forts that protected the road. Kanalia, Kapourna and make up the first municipality of Voivis in Volos. The church of Saint Nicolas , can be found in the area. Visitors to the area enjoy the plethora of almond trees when they are in blossom, they can even attend the celebration of the Blossoming Almond trees.</p><br>
<p>There is a lake in the area named Lake Karla by the previous name of Kanalia village which was drained between 1960 and 2000. Since 2001 the Greek Government has attempted to reconstruct the lake to its previous size, through the financial aid of European Union and Natura 2000.</p><br>
<p>Kersal Moor is a recreation area in Kersal, Greater Manchester, England which consists of eight hectares of moorland bounded by Moor Lane, Heathlands Road, St. Paul&#39;s Churchyard and Singleton Brook.</p><br>
<p>Kersal Moor, first called Karsey or Carsall Moor, originally covered a much larger area, running down to the River Irwell. Evidence of activity during the Neolithic period has been discovered and the area was used by the Romans. It was the site of the first Manchester Racecourse and the second golf course to be built outside Scotland. It has been extensively used for other sporting pursuits, military manoeuvres and public gatherings such as the Great Chartist Meeting of 1838, prompting the political theorist Friedrich Engels to dub it "the Mons Sacer of Manchester".</p><br>
<p>With the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation of Manchester and Salford during the 18th and 19th centuries, the moor became one of the remaining areas of natural landscape of interest to amateur naturalists, one of whom collected the only known specimens of the now extinct moth species Euclemensia woodiella. It is now a Site of Biological Importance and in 2007 was designated as a Local Nature Reserve by English Nature.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kersal Moor is one of the many fluvioglacial ridges that formed along the Irwell Valley during the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age. Typically for this type of landform, the subsoil is composed of sand mixed with coarse gravel. The 19th century botanist Richard Buxton described this as "Mr. E.W. Binney&#39;s drift deposit no.2... a deposit of sharp forest sand, parted with layers of gravel composed of Azoic, Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks, well rounded, parted with layers of fine sand, and having every appearance of a regular deposit by water." This deposit is overlaid with a thin topsoil supporting a range of mosses, heathers, grasses, ferns, common broom, gorse and some trees, which are predominantly oak with some rowan, cherry and other broadleaved species. The land to the south is elevated, rising to a high point towards the south-west. From this elevated position there are views across Manchester to the Derbyshire hills in the south, to the Pennines in the north east and across the Irwell Valley and Salford in the west. The land falls away to the north, ending with two drumlin-shaped hills on the northern edge, which were probably formed by sediment from the meltwater of the receding glaciers, in a process known as sedimentary fluting. The moor is criss-crossed with footpaths, many of which cut through to the sand and gravel below. Singleton Brook, to the north of the moor, denotes the boundary between Salford and Prestwich.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Flint scrapers, knives and other materials associated with neolithic humans were discovered on the moor in the late 19th and early 20th century by local antiquarians such as Charles Roeder. The Roman road from Manchester (Mamucium) to Ribchester (Bremetennacum) roughly followed the line of the A56 road (Bury New Road) which is just to the east of Kersal Moor. There was a Roman camp at Rainsough just to the west, and some have speculated that there may have been a second camp to the east, in the area known as Castle Hill, making a defensive line across the moor to protect the north of Mamucium.</p><br>
<p>The 18th century historian John Whitaker said of the moor:</p><br>
<p>"The moor of Kersal was in the time of the Romans, perhaps in that of the Britons before them, and for many ages after both, a thicket of oaks and a pasture for hogs; and the little knolls, that so remarkably diversify the plain, and are annually covered with mingled crowds rising in ranks over ranks to the top, were once the occasional seats of the herdsmen that superintended these droves into the woods."</p><br>
<p>However, the last of these trees were burnt around 1880.</p><br>
<h3>Sport on the moor</h3><br>
<p>The first Manchester racecourse was sited on the moor. The earliest record of horse-racing is contained in the following notice in the London Gazette of 2–5 May 1687:</p><br>
<p>On Carsall Moore near Manchester in Lancashire on the 18th instant, a 20£. plate will be run for to carry ten stone and ride three heats, four miles each heat. And the next day another plate of 40£. will be run for at the same moore, riding the same heats and carrying the same weight. The horses marks are to be given in four days before to Mr. William Swarbrick at the King&#39;s Arms in Manchester.</p><br>
<p>The racecourse is shown on the map of 1848 as a roughly oval-shaped course extending around the west, north and east of the moor, crossing Moor Lane and carrying on around the ground that is now the home of Salford City F.C., roughly following the line of what is now Nevile Road. John Byrom (1692–1763), the owner of Kersal Cell, was greatly opposed to the racing and wrote a pamphlet against it, but the racing continued for fifteen years until, probably through Dr Byrom&#39;s influence, they were stopped in 1746, the year of the Jacobite rising. After this there is known to have been at least one race in 1750; regular fixtures recommenced in 1759, and were then held every year until 1846, when they were transferred to the New Barns racecourse. Racing carried on there until the new Castle Irwell Racecourse was built, just across the river from the moor, in Lower Broughton in 1847. Today part of the course can still be seen as a wide, well-worn path stretching from east to west along the northern side of the moor.</p><br>
<p>During the 18th century the moor was also used for nude male races, allowing females to study the form before choosing their mates. Indeed, in 1796 Roger Aytoun, known as "Spanking Roger" (who was later a hero of the siege of Gibraltar) acquired Hough Hall in Moston through marriage to the widowed Barbara Minshull, after such a race.</p><br>
<p>The moor has also been used for a number of other sporting activities. In the 18th and early 19th century archery was still practised as a village sport, and the archers of Broughton, Cheetham and Prestwich were renowned countrywide. The Broughton archers practised their sport on Kersal Moor and in 1793 the Manchester writer, James Ogden, composed a poem in praise of them, which begins:</p><br>
<p>and ends with:</p><br>
<p>By 1830, however, archery had become the sport of gentlemen and an exclusive club called the "Broughton Archers" was formed, the membership of which included some of the most influential men in the town. They originally met at a public house nicknamed "Hard Backed Nan&#39;s" on the site of Bishopscourt where the Bishop of Manchester now resides, but after Bury New Road was built and the site became too public, they moved to the Turf Tavern on Kersal Moor.</p><br>
<p>In 1818 a golf course was founded on the moor for the Manchester Golf Club, a group of Manchester businessmen, some of whom had emigrated from Scotland. This was only the second course to be built outside Scotland. The course at that time consisted of only five holes and had no fairways or greens as the players had to share the ground with other users. The club was very exclusive and by 1825 a club house had been built on Singleton Road. By 1869 the course had increased to nine holes and the club continued playing on the moor until 1862 when a new course was built a few hundred yards away at Kersal Vale.</p><br>
<p>The archery ground became Kersal Cricket Ground in 1847 and in 1881 the Northern Tennis Tournament was staged there. In 1919 the ground became the home of Manchester&#39;s oldest rugby club, Manchester Football Club. When Manchester F.C. moved in 1968 they were replaced briefly by Langworthy Juniors and then Salford City F.C., who still lease the ground today.</p><br>
<h3>Public gatherings and military use</h3><br>
<p>As one of the largest open spaces close to Manchester, the moor has a history of use for army manoeuvres and large public gatherings. In his book The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, Friedrich Engels referred to it as the Mons Sacer of Manchester. This was a reference to the hill to which the plebs (common citizens) of Rome withdrew en masse in 494 BC as an act of civil protest.</p><br>
<p>In 1789 and 1790 there had been a spate of highway and house robberies. Gangs of armed men had entered houses in the middle of the night and taken away all they could carry. Armed patrols were placed around the neighbourhood to little effect until, at last, a man named James Macnamara was arrested with three others for burglary at the Dog and Partridge Inn on Stretford Road. Macnamara was tried at Lancaster Assizes and sentenced to be hanged on Kersal Moor as a warning to other criminals. A large number of people came to watch the execution but, as Joseph Aston said in his Metrical Records of Manchester "no one could suppose that the example had any use... as several persons had their pockets picked within sight of the gallows and the following night a house was broken into and robbed in Manchester".</p><br>
<p>The Stockport, Bolton and Rochdale Volunteers were reviewed on Kersal Moor on 25 August 1797 and in June 1812, 30,000 troops from the Wiltshire, Buckinghamshire, Louth and Stirling regiments were camped there ready for action to suppress the Luddites. In 1818 a protest meeting was held on the moor by coal miners to publicise their case for better pay, because of the dangers they faced at work.</p><br>
<p>A duel was fought on the moor in July 1804 between Mr. Jones and Mr. Shakspere Philips. Mr. Jones fired at Mr. Philips without effect and Mr. Philips then fired his pistol in the air, upon which the seconds interfered, the two man shook hands and honour was satisfied. Two weeks later, two other men who had been quarrelling in the newspapers met on the moor to gain satisfaction. However, the magistrates had been informed and the men were arrested before the duel could take place.</p><br>
<p>On 12 April 1831 the 60th Rifle Corps had carried out an exercise on the moor under the command of Lieutenant P.S. Fitzgerald, and a detachment of 74 men were returning to their barracks in Salford by way of Lower Broughton and Pendleton. As the men were crossing the Broughton Suspension Bridge, built four years earlier by Fitzgeralds&#39;s father, they felt it begin to vibrate in time with their footsteps, and before they had reached the other side the bridge collapsed. Although no one was killed twenty men were injured, six of them seriously. It was this incident that caused the British Military to issue the order for soldiers to "break step" when crossing a bridge.</p><br>
<p>The largest of a series of Chartist meetings was held on the moor on 24 September 1838. The meeting, which was planned as a show of strength and to elect delegates for the Chartist national convention, attracted speakers from all over the country and a massive crowd, which was estimated at 30,000 by the Manchester Guardian and 300,000 by the Morning Advertiser.</p><br>
<p>The Chartists were active for the next eight months but the poor attendance at a second meeting, held on the moor at the same time as a racing fixture on 25 May 1839, signalled the end of the movement. Although the movement was not successful initially, most of the Chartists&#39; demands were eventually met by Parliament.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the moor was used as an encampment for the East Norfolk Regiment as part of an increased military presence in Lancashire brought about by the unrest caused by Chartist agitation.</p><br>
<h3>Other pursuits</h3><br>
<p>As a relatively rural environment in an increasingly urbanised area, Kersal Moor was also used for more peaceful pursuits. During the 18th and 19th centuries it was much frequented by amateur naturalists and botanists. One of the botanists was Richard Buxton who went on to write A Botanical Guide to Manchester. In 1829 an amateur insect collector named Robert Cribb collected a series of about fifty small yellow and brown moths from a rotting alder on the moor. These turned out to be a previously unknown species of moth, but they were mistakenly attributed to a friend of Cribbs, the collector R. Wood, who had asked an expert to identify them. The moths were classified as Pancalia woodiella (today Euclemensia woodiella) in Woods honour.</p><br>
<p>The only specimen I have seen of this beautiful Moth, which is larger than the others, is a female; it was taken on Kersall-moor the middle of last June by Mr. R. Wood, of Manchester, to whom I have the pleasure of dedicating it;—a most zealous and successful naturalist, to whose liberality I am indebted for many valuable insects. -</p><br>
<p>Enraged by this, and by accusations of fraudulently passing off foreign moths as British, Cribb gave up collecting and left the rest of the specimens with his landlady as security for a debt. Here the stories from Manchester University and The Australian Museum, Victoria differ as to whether it was Cribb&#39;s pub landlady or the landlady of his lodgings, but either way the result was the same. The debt was not paid on time and when Cribb went back for the moths, which he had already sold to another collector, his landlady had burnt them. Subsequent efforts by other collectors to find more of the moths were unsuccessful, and the three specimens left in existence are thought to be the only representatives of an extinct species.</p><br>
<p>Towards the end of the 19th century, a Mr. Cosmo Melvill contributed an article to the Journal of Botany in which he gave a list of more than 240 plants and flowers, not including mosses, that he had found on the moor.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after 6:00 pm on 10 September 1848, the "celebrated aeronaut" George Gale ascended in a hot air balloon from Pomona Gardens in Hulme. After discharging a number of fireworks from a height of over 1,000 feet, Lieutenant Gale drifted in various directions and made abortive attempts to land in a number of locations. Eventually, at about 10:00 pm, the balloon descended safely in the farmyard of Mr Josiah Taylor on Kersal Moor.</p><br>
<p>In 1852, Queen Victoria commissioned a painting by the artist William Wyld which became A view of Manchester from Kersal Moor (pictured). The painting, which depicts the moor as a beautiful pastoral scene overlooking Castle Irwell racecourse and the industrial landscape of Manchester, is now in the Royal Collection, where it is listed as Manchester from Higher Broughton. A steel line engraving of the painting by the engraver Edward Goodall was also commissioned.</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>The English radical and writer Samuel Bamford mentions Kersal Moor in his book Passages in the Life of a Radical (1840–1844) when he advises one of his friends to make his way from Middleton to Bolton via Kersal Moor to avoid the authorities:</p><br>
<p>Healey I advised to go to his brother at Bolton, and get some money, and keep out of sight entirely, until something further was known. His best way would be to avoid Manchester, and go over Kersal moor and Agecroft bridge; and as I had a relation in that quarter who wished to see me, I would keep him company as far as Agecroft.</p><br>
<p>The races on the moor were mentioned in the 19th-century novel The Manchester Man by Mrs. G Linnaeus Banks (1874). The hero of the story, Jabez Clegg, meets a street boy named Kit Townley, of whom Mrs. Banks says:</p><br>
<p>He knew him to be not over-scrupulous. He had seen him at Knott Mill Fair and Dirt Fair (so called from its being held in muddy November), or at Kersal Moor Races, with more money to spend in pop, nuts, and gingerbread, shows and merry-go-rounds, flying boats and flying boxes, fighting cocks and fighting men, than he could possibly have saved out of the sum his father allowed him for pocket-money, even if he had been of the saving</p><br>
<p>kind; and, coupling all these things together, Jabez was far from satisfied.</p><br>
<p>It is also mentioned in a collection of poems by Philip Connell called "Poaching on Parnassus" published in 1865.</p><br>
<p>Lines to Mr. Isaac Holden</p><br>
<p>by Philip Connell</p><br>
<p>on his Drawing of the Prestwich Lunatic Asylum:</p><br>
<p>And Southward at due distance the huge hive,</p><br>
<p>Of busy Manchester is all alive,</p><br>
<p>Its towering chimnies, domes and steeples rise,</p><br>
<p>In strange confusion thro&#39; the hazy skies</p><br>
<p>There Broughton glimmers in the evening sun</p><br>
<p>Here Cheetham Hill o&#39;ertops the vapours dun</p><br>
<p>There Kersal Moor the same bleak front doth shew,</p><br>
<p>That met the view Eight hundred years ago,</p><br>
<p>Where Clunian Monks there with their God did dwell,</p><br>
<p>Within the precincts of its holy cell.</p><br>
<p>In 1876 the Lancashire dialect poet and songwriter Edwin Waugh moved from his Manchester home to Kersal Moor for the "fresher air". Waugh&#39;s early life was spent in Rochdale and although he worked in Manchester he yearned for the moors he remembered from his youth. He wrote the following poem about Kersal Moor</p><br>
<p>As his health declined, Waugh moved to the seaside town of New Brighton. On his death in 1890, his body was brought back to be buried in the graveyard of St. Paul&#39;s Church, on the edge of the moorland he loved so well.</p><br>
<p>Mount Rubidoux is a mountain just west of downtown in the city of Riverside, California, United States, that has been designated a city park and landmark. The mountain was once a popular Southern California tourist destination and is still the site of the oldest outdoor non-denominational Easter Sunrise service in the United States. Many historic markers and memorials have been placed on the mountain, the most prominent being the cross at the summit dedicated to Father Junípero Serra.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Ana River flows at the base of the mountain, marking the boundary between the city of Riverside and the Rubidoux neighborhood of the City of Jurupa Valley.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was named for Louis Rubidoux, who established Rancho Rubidoux in 1847, after purchasing a portion of the Rancho Jurupa from Benjamin Davis Wilson, the second elected mayor of Los Angeles.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tom Patterson, as well as most local Riverside historians, have concluded that the original name of Mount Rubidoux was Pachappa. They speculate that one of the early owners of Rancho Jurupa reassigned the name Pachappa to another, smaller hill, in order to expand the property of the Rancho. Since Pachappa hill was designated as the southeast marker of the Jurupa Rancho, which was granted by the Mexican government to Juan Bandini in 1838, reassigning the name to the current Pachappa Hill would have expanded the Rancho Jurupa significantly, incorporating all of the area covered by today&#39;s downtown Riverside. It is also possible the United States government renamed the hills in order to satisfy acreage requirements of the original Mexican land Grant.</p><br>
<p>In 1906 Frank Miller, owner of the Mission Inn, along with Henry E. Huntington and Charles M. Loring, formed the Huntington Park Association and purchased the property with the intent to build a road to the summit and develop the mountain as a park to benefit the city of Riverside. Originally the park was named Huntington Park, but the name was changed to the Frank A. Miller Mount Rubidoux Memorial Park after the heirs of Frank Miller donated the property to the city in 1955. On December 13, 1925, the Testimonial Peace Tower was dedicated to Miller. The bridge is a replica of a noted bridge in Alcántara, Spain. A plaque for 1932 Olympic equestrian Shunzo Kido was placed on the bridge in 1934 honoring his sacrifice of an Olympic medal in order to save his horse, Kyu Gun, from lameness.</p><br>
<p>Initial improvements, including the road, were completed in February 1907. The first memorial marker on the mountain, the cross and tablet at the summit honoring Father Junipero Serra, was dedicated on April 26, 1907. Serra supposedly often travelled through the valley and rested at Rubidoux Rancho.</p><br>
<p>A sunset over Mount Rubidoux, in 1909, was the occasion for Carrie Jacobs-Bond to compose her famous song "A Perfect Day" which for many years was played each day as the last tune on the Mission Inn&#39;s carillon.</p><br>
<p>Mount Rubidoux was designated Riverside City Landmark no. 26, and has been a city park since 1955, when the land was donated to the city by Frank Miller&#39;s heirs. The park features 3.5 miles of paved and dirt hiking trails.</p><br>
<h3>Easter sunrise service</h3><br>
<p>In April 1909, Jacob Riis of New York, a friend of President Theodore Roosevelt, was in town to give an address at the Mission Inn. He suggested holding an Easter sunrise service at the top of the mountain, and on the following Sunday the first non-denominational outdoor Easter Sunrise Service in the United States was held at the top of the mount.</p><br>
<p>In 1912 an estimated crowd of 3,000 people were present to hear Henry Van Dyke read his poem, God of the Open Air. Each year attendance grew. In 1918 plans for an open-air 10,000-seat amphitheater designed by architect Frederick Heath were considered, but they were never implemented.</p><br>
<p>The annual service became nationally and internationally known, drawing huge crowds and celebrities, including opera soprano Marcella Craft. In 1915 the Southern Pacific Railroad provided a special service from Los Angeles to Riverside just for the event. The Pacific Electric trolley system also implemented special service from Los Angeles, Corona, Redlands, and San Bernardino. Peak attendance in the 1920s was reported to have exceeded 30,000.</p><br>
<p>The popularity of the Rubidoux Easter sunrise services spawned many other such services throughout the country, including an annual service at the Hollywood Bowl.</p><br>
<h2>Mount Rubidoux today</h2><br>
<p>Mount Rubidoux continues to be an important landmark and valued asset to the people of Riverside. On April 12, 2009, the 100th anniversary of the Easter Sunrise service was held at the top of Mount Rubidoux. The city launches its premier fireworks show from the top of the mountain every Fourth of July.</p><br>
<p>Mount Rubidoux Park is open from dawn until dusk. It covers 161 acre and features 3.5 mi of paved roads and several dirt hiking trails. The park is closed to vehicular traffic, but improvements in 2009 boosted the number of daily walkers, joggers, and bicyclists. The hill is also a popular place for bouldering, particularly for beginners in the sport.</p><br>
<p>All roads and trails are maintained in good condition by the city and by the Friends of Mount Rubidoux, a non-profit organization formed by citizen volunteers to restore, preserve, and beautify Mount Rubidoux Park, to enhance knowledge of the rich history of Mount Rubidoux Park, and to foster enjoyment by visitors to Mount Rubidoux.</p><br>
<p>Elkins Ferry was the site of the 1864 Battle of Elkins Ferry, an engagement of the Camden Expedition during the American Civil War. The battlefield is located about 10 mi north of Prescott, Arkansas, spanning the Little Missouri River in Clark and Nevada counties in Arkansas. The 575 acre battlefield area was designated a part of the Camden Expedition Sites, a National Historic Landmark District made up of several of expedition&#39;s key sites, in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The 1864 Camden Expedition was part of a two-pronged strategy by the Union Army to drive Confederate resistance out of southwestern Arkansas and northern Louisiana, and pentetrated into Confederate Texas. Union Major General Frederick Steele led a Union force from Little Rock on March 23, 1864, with the objective of joining forces with Major General Nathaniel Prentice Banks at Shreveport, Louisiana. Confederate forces in Arkansas were directed from Washington, where the Confederate government of the state relocated after the fall of Little Rock. Confederate Major General Sterling Price ordered Brigadier General John S. Marmaduke to harry the Union column and to prevent it from crossing the Little Missouri River as it moved toward Washington. Advance Union forces established a beachhead on the south side of the Little Missouri on April 3, and clashed with Confederate defenders, who eventually withdrew upon the arrival of more of the Union column. Casualties were light: 18 Confederate soldiers killed and 50 wounded, and 30 Union soldiers wounded. The Union advance would be halted at Prairie D&#39;Ane a week later, and eventually fail due to supply problems.</p><br>
<h2>Battlefield</h2><br>
<p>The battlefield is a predominantly wooded area, crossed by the Little Missouri River, and Middle and Howard Creeks, which are tributaries to its south that flow roughly from west to east. The present alignment of Nevada County Route 37 and Clark County Route 14 roughly follow the route the Union forces. The presumed ferry site is still visible as a deep cut in the river bank near the road. The ferry was replaced by a wooden bridge in the 1920s, which was washed out sometime in the 1950s or 1960s. The construction of Interstate 30 resulted in decreased significance of the area for transportation, and contributed to the preservation of the battlefield. The area is also flood-prone (as it was in the 1860s), and not suitable for development.</p><br>
<p>The Brackett House is an historic house located at 621 Centre Street in the Newton Centre village of Newton, Massachusetts. Built about 1844, it is a prominent local example of Greek Revival architecture, with a four-column temple front. Extensively damaged by fire in 2010, a careful restoration was completed in 2013. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 4, 1986.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Brackett House is located in a residential area south of Newton Corner, at the northwest corner of Centre and Bellevue Streets. Centre Street is a historically old road, and is now a busy artery between Newton Corner and Newton Centre to the south. The house is 2-1/2 stories in height, with a gabled roof and clapboarded exterior. It is fronted by a monumental two-story Greek temple portico supported by four fluted Ionic columns. The main entrance is at the center of the three-bay facade, flanked by sidelight windows and topped by an architrave with cornice. A cross-gabled section projects on the south side of the building, with a fully pedimented gable that has a half-round window at its center.</p><br>
<p>The area where the house stands was originally allocated to Deacon Samuel Hyde, who was one of Newtons first settlers, arriving in 1639. Hyde and his brother laid out Centre Street. By the 1840s the property was farmland owned by Nathaniel Brackett. The house was probably built in 1844, the year Nathaniels son Gilman married Catherine Russell. The house was extensively damaged by fire on March 20, 2010, and subsequently underwent a careful restoration which was completed in 2013.</p><br>
<p>The Bartlett–Hawkes Farm is a historic house at 15 Winnetaska Road, in the Waban village of Newton, Massachusetts. With its oldest portion dating to about 1736, it is the oldest surviving building in Waban. Enlarged several times, it was moved to its present location from Beacon Street in 1915. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on September 4, 1986.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Barlett–Hawkes Farm is located in a residential area west of the center of Waban village, on the west side of Winnetaska Road at its junction with Quidnic Road. It is a 2-1/2 story wood-frame structure, eight bays wide, with a side-gable roof and clapboard siding. The rear roof extends down to the first floor, giving the house a saltbox profile. There are two entrances on the main facade, each two bays in from a side. Both have Federal period surrounds with pilasters and a corniced entablature; the one on the left also has half-length sidelight windows.</p><br>
<p>The oldest portion of the house is believed to be the southernmost three bays, which were built as a "half house" about 1736 by Ebenezer Bartlett, who owned about 100 acre of land. Bartlett and his wife Anne raised seventeen children in the house, expanding it to five bays. Bartlett&#39;s son Elisha increased the farm to 200 acre, and served in the local militia during the American Revolutionary War. His son Peregrine sold the farm to George Hawkes, another local farmer, in the mid-19th century. Later owners further extended the building in the early 20th century, added bays on the north side and adding the saltbox shed to the rear. Originally facing nearby Beacon Street, the house was moved about 200 ft to its present location in 1915.</p><br>
<p>Capo Colonna  is a cape of Calabria located near Crotone.</p><br>
<p>On the cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, which is said to have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Crotone. It is a Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii.3) and architectural fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to Hera of the 6th century BC, in private possession at Crotone, are described by F. von Duhn in Notizie degli scavi, 1897, 343 seq. The date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 BC; it is not recorded by any ancient writer.</p><br>
<p>Mill Grove is a historic house and estate on Pawlings Road in Audubon, Pennsylvania. Built in the 1760s, it is notable as the first home in America of painter and naturalist John James Audubon  for which the community is named. The 130 acre estate is now maintained as a museum and wildlife sanctuary by Montgomery County, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989. The house serves as the educational center of the Pennsylvania chapter of the National Audubon Society, and is known as John James Audubon Center at Mill Grove.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Mill Grove is located on the west side of the village of Audubon, just north Valley Forge National Historical Park. The estate consists of more than 130 acre of mainly woodlands on the south bank of Perkiomen Creek, bounded on the south by Pawlings Road. The main house is a 2-1/2 story stone structure, oriented to overlook the creek. Its roof faces are each pierced by three wood frame gabled dormers, and there are stone chimneys at the interior of each end. A single-story ell extends the building to one side, and a gabled porch shelters the main entrance.</p><br>
<p>The house was built about 1762 by James Morgan, who also operated a mill and lead mine on the property. He built the addition in 1765 to serve as a tavern for passing travelers. Due to its proximity to Valley Forge, it was looted during the American Revolutionary War, although the house was spared from significant damage. The property was purchased in 1789 by Jean Audubon, a French sea captain. In 1803 he sent his seventeen-year-old son Jean (who soon anglicized his name John James Audubon) to Mill Grove to oversee further development of the mine. Instead of doing so, the young Audubon became enamored with the natural beauty of the area. In the two years he spent here, he taught himself methods of tracking birds by banding, and how to set specimens for drawings. He also became engaged to Lucy Bakewell, returning here in 1808 for the wedding. During Audubon&#39;s absence between 1805 and 1808, the property was overseen by another Frenchman, to whom Audubon sold the property following his wedding. In 1813 it was bought by Samuel Wetherill, in whose family it remained until 1951. His heirs turned the property over to the county, which has managed it since as a wildlife preserve and nature center.</p><br>
<p>The estate now comprises 175 acre with more than five miles (8 km) of trails. The house features a museum displaying original Audubon prints, all of his major oil paintings and memorabilia.</p><br>
<p>The Plavnikovye Islands  is a group of islands, in the Kara Sea eastern region, off the coast of Siberia.</p><br>
<p>These islands are covered with tundra vegetation and there are many lakes and swamps. They are under snow and ice during most of the year.</p><br>
<p>The largest islands of the Plavnikovye Archipelago are Pestsovy Island and Krugly Island. Most of these islands are located and less than 10 km west of the deeply indented shores of the Taymyr Peninsula. But others, like Vardroppera Island, are far offshore.</p><br>
<p>The eastern group of islands, including Kosterina and Pestsovy, are also known as Vkhodnye Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Plavnikovye Islands, lie south of the small Kolosovykh peninsula. Geologically they are part of the Minina Skerries, a complex formation that includes the Kolosovykh Islands further north.</p><br>
<p>This island group is located between 73° 15&#39; and 74° 40&#39; N and between 84° and 86° 30&#39; E.</p><br>
<p>The sea surrounding the Plavnikovye Islands is covered with fast ice in the winter and the climate is severe, with bitter and long winters. The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer.</p><br>
<p>This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation. It is also part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of Russia.</p><br>
<p>The Plavnikovye Islands should not be confused with Plavnikovy Island (Ostrov Plavnikovy), off the western shores of Severnaya Zemlya, also in the Kara Sea.</p><br>
<p>San Giorgio in Alga  is an island of the Venetian lagoon, northern Italy, lying between the Giudecca and Fusina .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After a Benedictine monastery was founded about 1000 AD, more monasteries followed. In 1404, Ludovico Barbo, the commendatory prior of a monastery of Augustinian friars on the island which was almost abandoned, gave the monastery to a small community of canons leading a contemplative life. The canons of the monastery instituted reforms to the canonical life which were quickly adopted in other communities of canons throughout the region. Soon they became the head of a congregation known as the Canons Regular of San Giorgio in Alga. One of Barbo&#39;s reforms was to allow the canons to sleep in separate cells to provide more opportunity for solitary prayer.</p><br>
<p>In 1717 a fire burnt most of the buildings on the island. As of 1799 there was a political prison, but nowadays the island is completely abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The island was used in 1944 as a secret base for German military personnel training under the auspices of Italian Lt-Cmdr Wolk to master mine laying against Allied ships as free-diving frogmen. To avoid being discovered they practised only at night.</p><br>
<p>Santa Maria della Grazia or La Grazia is an artificial island of the Venetian lagoon, northern Italy, which lies between the Giudecca and San Clemente.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Santa Maria della Grazia rose during the Middle Ages in the place where Venice’s rubble was discarded. The island takes its name from a supposedly miraculous Madonna which was on display in its former church.</p><br>
<p>In 1264 there was a home for pilgrims to the Holy Land; later it was transformed into a convent. During the Napoleonic period the convent was suppressed and changed to a powder-magazine, which in 1849 exploded destroying both the ex-convent and the church.</p><br>
<p>The island was the site of an infectious diseases hospital until the end of the twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Court and park is an old estate on the northern fringes of the Brendon Hills, within the Exmoor National Park. They are within the civil parish of Nettlecombe, named after the house, and are approximately 3.6 mi from the village of Williton, in the English county of Somerset. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building.</p><br>
<p>The 16th-century Elizabethan, Tudor and Medieval architecture with Georgian refinements includes a mansion, Medieval hall, church, monumental oak grove, and a farm. It is surrounded by 60 hectare of estate parkland situated within the Exmoor National Park, once a part of the estate. It lays sheltered at the northeast incline of the Brendon Hills. The park surrounding the house is Grade II listed on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.</p><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Park blends into woodlands, with the house serving as the Leonard Wills Field Centre for field scientists who wish to study the surrounding natural environment, which is the best example of this type of ecosystem remaining in England. Today, nearby hills and woodlands, including Exmoor National Park, have provided opportunities for general scientific introductory field courses on environmental themes and botany. Habitats include marine, freshwater and heather moorland and the surrounding settlements range from hamlets to villages to the country town of Taunton. An archaeological excavation on the edge of the property, near the sea coast, has revealed the remains of Danish Vikings who were defeated there circa 900.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Nettlecombe was originally spelled Netelcumbe and by 1245 Nettelcumbe meaning the place or valley where the nettles grow.</p><br>
<p>Nettlecombe has never been bought or sold. It was held before the Norman Conquest by Prince Godwine, son of King Harold. William the Conqueror assumed possession of Nettlecombe after defeating King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. In 1160, Henry II granted it to Hugh de Raleigh, and to his heirs in perpetuity. It passed to Warine de Raleigh, and on through direct blood heirs until the 19th century, a claim strengthened by marriages between deep ancestral cousins. The estate became a seat of the Trevelyan baronets (previously spelled as Trevilian), who also held another manor at Basil, by the marriage of Sir John Trevilian in 1481 to Lady Whalesborough, heiress of Nettlecombe via her Raleigh maternal line. Nettlecombe was held in continuity by Trevilian successors until the 20th century following the death of Joan Trevelyan and her husband Garnet Wolsey.</p><br>
<p>It became a boarding school for girls (St. Audries Junior School) in the late 1950s. Since 1967 it has been the home of the Leonard Wills Field Centre run by the Field Studies Council an educational charity. The house is surrounded by Nettlecombe Park, a 90.4 hectare Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).</p><br>
<h2>House</h2><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Court is an Elizabethan country mansion, in addition to earlier-built structures including a late Medieval hall, entrance front, porch, a great hall, and church. A Tudor parlour was added in 1599. In the 1640s there were further additions to the rear of the great hall following a fire started by roundheads opposed to George Trevelyns support of the monarchy during the English Civil War.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of George I, between 1703 and 1707, the South West front was extended.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century, an organ built by John Loosemore was installed, at a cost of £100. This was converted from a single-manual to two-manual operation in the 1830s. In the 1980s, this was partly dismantled and the original parts removed to the John Loosemore Centre in Buckfastleigh, where they are still located, awaiting restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Family</h2><br>
<p>As stated in Nettlecombe Court, by R. J. E. Bush,"Nettlecombe is first mentioned in the Domesday book of 1086, when it was stated to be held by William the Conqueror, and in the charge of his Sheriff for Somerset, William de Mohun." A family lineage published in Nettlecombe Court shows that the estate passed into the Trevelyan family in 1452, upon the marriage of heiress Elizabeth Whalesburgh to a knight companion of the king: Sir John Trevilian, Esquire of the Kynges Body to Henry VI, Gentleman Usher of the Kings Chamber. He also served as a Member of Parliament representing Somerset and as High Sheriff of Cornwall. In the 17th century, the spelling of Trevilian became variably spelt as Trevelyan.</p><br>
<h2>Intellectual salon</h2><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Lady Trevelyan made use of the family estates Wallington and Nettlecombe with its great house and 20,000 acres of land, to host a sophisticated intellectual and artistic salon of the day, renowned for the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The sister of Lord Thomas Macaulay, eminent British historian as author of the History of England, Hannah Macaulay, married into the Trevelyan family resulting in another eminent historian George Macaulay Trevelyan, whose ancestors lived at Nettlecombe.</p><br>
<h2>Arms and legend</h2><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Court has several emblems and carvings bearing the image of a horse rising from the sea, which are the Trevilian family arms, found throughout the house. The source story of the arms is the Lyonesse legend of Trevilian, as follows: Lyonesse were the lands, now submerged, on the west coast that was said to be the lands of Camelot of King Arthur and the site of the final mortal battle between King Arthur and Mordred. Tennysons Idylls of the King claims Lyonesse as the final resting place of King Arthur himself. Perhaps this is why the grave of the king cannot be found, as it lies beneath the sea. Roman writings also speak of a Leonis, now submerged off the coast. Lyonesse was also the home of Tristan and Isolde. Legend relates that when Lyonesse suddenly sank, it was inundated as sea levels rushed in. The sole surviving knight of King Arthurs Lyonesse was said to be only one knight, Trevilian, who escaped by riding his white horse through the rising waters to higher ground before Lyonesse was submerged. Trevilian urged the other knights to join him in his attempt to escape, who counter-urged Trevilian to stay put and wait for the floodwaters to pass. The sedentary knights jovially bet wagers amongst themselves around the supper table, as to whether or not Trevilian and his white horse could survive swimming through the incoming flooding and make it to higher ground. None of the other Arthurian knights of Lyonesse, except Trevilian, was said to have survived the great sinking and inundation of Lyonesse. Submerged Medieval church bells of the lost land of Lyonesse were later said to be heard ringing, muffled under the water, when turbulent storms created rough seas. The surviving Trevilian became the founder of the current British Trevilian-Trevelyan family, whose coat of arms still bears a white horse issuing forth from the sea. In some cases the Trevilian white horse arms may be seen combined at Nettlecombe with other related family arms, indicating marriages to Raleigh, Luttrell, Wyndham, Chichester and Strode.</p><br>
<h2>Park</h2><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Park is important for its lichen flora. Records suggest this site has been wood pasture or parkland for at least 400 years. There are some very old oak pollards which may be of this age or older. The oldest standard trees are over 200 years of age. The continuity of open woodland and parkland, with large mature and over-mature timber, has enabled characteristic species of epiphytic lichens and beetles to become established and persist. Many of the species in the park are now nationally scarce because this type of habitat has been eliminated over large areas of Great Britain. The park was notified as an SSSI in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Nettlecombe is known to have had a deer park by 1532. In 1556 it covered 80 acre and in 1619 70 acre. In the 1690s large areas of parkland were enclosed and four new gardens created, including a water garden, which has now disappeared but is remembered in the name Canal Field. The park was extended in the 18th century which included the removal of the houses that made up the village. In 1792 Thomas Veitch laid out the landscape in the style of Capability Brown including the construction of a Ha-ha between the deer park and the meadows. This included the removal of cottages and relocation of the residents. The parkland is now listed, Grade II, on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England.</p><br>
<p>Within the grounds is the Church of St Mary the Virgin which is also a Grade I listed building.</p><br>
<h3>Oak trees</h3><br>
<p>Nettlecombe Park is 223 acre of undulating parkland boasting monumental solitary trees and treegroups. It was probably once an oak forest in the main. Today, among these, oaks and sweet chestnuts are still the most common. Several sessile oaks are outstandingly large and were famous from ancient accounts for their great size. Nettlecombe oaks once provided tall strong trees for shipbuilding. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, timber hewn from the oaks of Nettlecombe were hand-selected to help build the ships of the English fleet commanded by Sir Walter Raleigh that defeated the Spanish Armada. A number of other English ships that sailed the world to establish British colonies, its navy, and trading empire were built making use of prime Nettlecombe oaks. In the 19th century very good prices were offered to the Trevelyan baronet to cut down and sell the great oaks, but the owner left them standing and the trees have been protected ever since. Some have now grown to a girth of 23 ft. Today, Nettlecombe acorns are sold to nurseries to begin new sapling oak trees.</p><br>
<p>The Dzata Ruins  are an archaeological site in Dzanani in the Makhado municipality, Vhembe district, in the north of South Africa.</p><br>
<p>Scholars who have made a study of the various legends and traditions associated with the ruins, find it clear that they are many contradictions. Archaeological evidence has shed some lights on these events, but a great deal of work still remains to be done. It is certain that Dzata was built at an earlier date than many people are willing to admit. Radiocarbon dates suggest a beginning shortly after AD 1700, with an end some 50 to 60 years later.</p><br>
<p>Documentary proof of this is found in Dutch records, which refer to an interview in 1730 with an African by the name of Mahumane, who had visited the kingdom of Thovhele some five years previously. Mahumane described a settlement built of dark-blue stone, with a wall enclosing the whole area. He also mentioned that the chief cities are made of the same stone. To date no stone-walled settlement has been found that is made of dark blue stone, other than Dzata. There is no doubt that Dzata was the capital of united Venda.</p><br>
<p>It is not clear what the role of the legendary Thohoyandou was at this stage. It is highly unlikely that he could remain chief throughout this period of a minimum of 50 years that Dzata was the capital. Oral history indicates very strongly that it was after the disappearance of Thohoyandou that Dzata was abandoned, and the Venda nation fragmented once more into independent chiefdoms. It seems very likely that Thohoyandou expanded the Venda empire to cover areas as far south as the Olifants River near Phalaborwa. No doubt trade played an important role in this.</p><br>
<p>Dzata ruins is now one of the national monuments in South Africa.</p><br>
<p>The Blake River Megacaldera Complex is a giant subaqueous caldera cluster or a nested caldera system that spans across the Ontario-Quebec border in Canada.</p><br>
<p>The caldera complex is around 2.7 billion years old, consisting of a series of overlapping calderas of various ages and sizes. It lies within the southern zone of the Abitibi greenstone belt of the Superior craton and has an area of.</p><br>
<p>The Blake River Megacaldera Complex has been a centre of major interest since 2006 with numerous excursions at the international, national and local level. It is a world-class metallotect with respect to both hydrothermal Cu-Zn massive sulfides and gold-rich massive sulfides.</p><br>
<h2>Structure and geographical extent</h2><br>
<p>The Blake River Megacaldera Complex consists of mainly mafic to intermediate volcanic flows and less abundant felsic volcanic flows and intercalated pyroclastic rocks, which underwent three stages of major volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>The first phase resulted in the creation of the long, wide, east-west striking Misema Caldera which has been dated to 2704-2707 Ma. It is a coalescence of at least two large mafic shield volcanoes that formed more than 2703 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The second phase resulted in the creation of the long, wide, northwest-southeast trending New Senator Caldera which formed 2701-2704 Ma. Its formation consists of thick massive mafic sequences which has inferred to be a subaqueous lava lake during the early stages of the caldera&#39;s development.</p><br>
<p>The third phase of activity constructed the classic east-northeast striking 2696 Ma Noranda Caldera which contains a 7-to-9-km-thick succession of mafic and felsic rocks erupted during five major series of activity.</p><br>
<p>The Blake River Megacaldera Complex is considered a supervolcano due to its great size and its multiple dikes and vents. The Misema Caldera is in the order of, making the complex similar to the Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming, Lake Toba in Indonesia and strikingly similar in structure to the Olympus Mons caldera on Mars. As a result, the Blake River Group is best categorized as a meganested caldera complex.</p><br>
<p>Herron–Morton Place is a historic district in Indianapolis, Indiana, dedicated to restoration and renewal. The boundaries of the neighborhood are East 16th Street on the south, East 22nd Street on the north, the alley west of North Pennsylvania on the west, and the alley east of Central Avenue on the east.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1859, the state purchased the land, which was still largely undeveloped, as a home for the Indiana State Fair.</p><br>
<p>At the start of the American Civil War, the area was used first as an induction center for the Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and later as the prisoner of war camp for Condederates, Camp Morton. After the Civil War, Indiana reclaimed the land as fairgrounds, and the site until 1890.</p><br>
<p>The area was then platted for residential development, and home construction began in the 1890s.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, the district directly north of 16th Street was one of Indianapolis’ most elegant residential neighborhoods. Morton Place, named for Indiana governor Oliver Morton, was home to many celebrated politicians, physicians, business leaders, and artists.</p><br>
<p>Indiana Impressionist artists T.C. Steele and William Forsyth founded their famed Hoosier Group art school in Morton Place in 1888. In 1895 John Herron&#39;s bequest founded the John Herron Art Institute, and funded new construction of a new main building and an art museum in Morton Place. The Herron Museum later became the Indianapolis Museum of Art.</p><br>
<p>The Morton Place neighborhood thrived until the Great Depression in the 1930s. Throughout the 1930s and World War II, many houses were subdivided into apartments. In the 1950s through 1970s many houses were lost to fire or demolition.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Herron–Morton Place Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and became a historic preservation district in 1986. It encompasses 574 contributing buildings an representative examples of Classical Revival, Queen Anne, and Tudor Revival style architecture.</p><br>
<h2>21st century</h2><br>
<p>The present day Herron School of Art and Design, the preeminent art school in Indiana, relocated to new buildings on the Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis campus in 2000 and 2005.</p><br>
<p>The original Herron School of Art buildings now house Herron High School, a classical liberal arts charter high school. They are historic district contributing properties to the HMPHD.</p><br>
<p>The Willard and Josephine Hubbard House was individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Community</h2><br>
<p>Since 1950, Herron–Morton Place has hosted the Talbot Street Art Fair, an annual juried art fair held on Talbott Street in June of each year. The Herron–Morton Place Neighborhood Association was formed in 1976 to spearhead the renovation of home, encourage new residential development, reduce crime, and rebuild community spirit.</p><br>
<p>The Herron–Morton Place Neighborhood Foundation raises funds to maintain a historic neighborhood park (located on the 1900 block of Alabama Street) and other beautification efforts throughout the neighborhood. The Foundation plans several events each year that raise money for the neighborhood park, most notable are the annual Oktoberfest in late September and bi-annual home tour and Rock N Romp a yearly event for families.</p><br>
<p>Scammonden Reservoir is a water reservoir in West Yorkshire, England. The area of the water surface when the reservoir is full is 42 hectare. The level of the bellmouth overflow above sea level is 252 m. The reservoir holds 7800 million litres. Its length is 1.4 km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Scammonden Dam is part of the M62 motorway between junctions 22 and 23, the only such structure in Britain. Its construction by the Ministry of Transport and Huddersfield Corporation Waterworks required the passing of the Huddersfield Corporation Act 1965. The motorway dam spans the Deanhead Valley in the Pennines between Leeds and Manchester and the main contractor for the project was Sir Alfred McAlpine & Sons. Deanhead village was submerged and many buildings demolished to make way for the reservoir but the church remains and its vicarage is used by the sailing club. Both the church and adjacent school were at risk of slipping down the hillside into the dam and were not used after 1971 when the motorway opened. The church was renovated in 2002 and the old schoolhouse has been converted into a private dwelling.</p><br>
<p>Surveying began in November 1961 and the route of the carriageway was determined in mid 1963. Excavation in the Deanhead Valley commenced the following year and for the dam in 1966. This required the removal of 713,000 cubic metres of peat bog to reach the solid rock base nearly 13 metres below ground level. Material excavated elsewhere on the line of the motorway, clay from cuttings between Lofthouse and Gildersome, and 3.4 million cubic metres from the Deanhead excavations was used to build the dam&#39;s embankment which is 625 metres in length and 63.1 metres above the original valley floor. The 3.6 million cubic metre embankment is 435 metres wide at its base and 55 metres at road level.</p><br>
<p>Scammonden Water is 51.8 metres at its deepest point and water is drawn-off through a 2.5 kilometre tunnel driven southwards to supply Huddersfield. The overflow bellmouth, next to the valve shaft superstructure, discharges water to the valley below via a tunnel in the valley on the reservoir&#39;s eastern side. The reservoir started to fill in July 1969 and the area was landscaped and parking and other facilities were provided.</p><br>
<p>The motorway, which was dependent on the completion of the dam, was opened to traffic on 20 December 1970 and officially opened by HM Queen Elizabeth II who unveiled a plaque near the valve tower of Scammonden Water on 14 October 1971.</p><br>
<h2>Leisure activities</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir is home to Scammonden Water Sailing Club or SWSC. The sailing club has the exclusive rights to the water, which means that the activities on the water are either dingy cruising or racing. Other activities occasionally take place usually under the auspices of the scouts.</p><br>
<p>Huddersfield Scout Sailing is a Royal Yachting Association Training Centre run by volunteers for scouts and guides.</p><br>
<p>There is also a scouting activity centre located at the water&#39;s edge which also holds the boat workshop for scout sailing.</p><br>
<p>El Abra is the name given to an extensive archeological site, located in the valley of the same name. El Abra is situated in the east of the municipality Zipaquirá extending to the westernmost part of Tocancipá in the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. The several hundred metres long series of rock shelters is in the north of the Bogotá savanna on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes at an altitude of 2,570 m. The rock shelter and cave system is one of the first evidences of human settlement in the Americas, dated at 12,400 ± 160 years BP. The site was used by the hunter-gatherers of the Late Pleistocene epoch.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name El Abra is taken from a large hacienda of that name at the foot of the western portion of the rock formation. The eastern side of the outcropping sandstones is accessible. Climbing activities at these Rocas de Sevilla are organised.</p><br>
<h2>Stratigraphy</h2><br>
<p>The first research in the place was conducted in 1967, and the stratigraphy of lithic instruments, bones and vegetal charcoal with radiocarbon dating established the date of the settlement in 12,400 ± 160 years BP.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological research</h2><br>
<p>In the late 1960s, the Indiana University collaborated in a deeper research. In 1970, the Dutch Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (NWO-WOTRO) discovered four new preceramic sites and the analysis of lacustrine sediments allowed a more accurate understanding of the paleoclimate and flora.</p><br>
<h3>Fúquene stadial</h3><br>
<p>The Fúquene stadial, named after Lake Fúquene, close to the village of the same name, is defined from 15,000 to 12,500 BP. It is characterized by a cold climate, flora typical of páramo ecosystems, and lithic tools.</p><br>
<h3>Guantivá interstadial</h3><br>
<p>About 12,500 years ago, a gradual rise of temperature allowed the return of Andean cloud forest and the settlement of many animal species, making hunting easier. Artefacts of this period are called abriense: flint (tool)s, and chopper cores. As the climate was more benign, the cave system was gradually abandoned.</p><br>
<h3>Tibitó stadial</h3><br>
<p>The excavations of this period, near Tocancipá at Tibitó, dated at 11,400 years BP, show lithic instruments, bone tools and remains of Pleistocene megafauna, such as mastodons (Haplomastodon waringi and Cuvieronius hyodon), American horse (Equus amerhipuus lasallei), and deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with traces of ritual ceremonies.</p><br>
<h3>El Abra stadial</h3><br>
<p>Dated 11,000 BP, it is characterized by a new cooling of the climate, recession of the forests and a last period of extending glaciations. From this period the archaeological site of Tequendama in Soacha shows lithic instruments (Tequendamenses tools) with a more smooth manufacture, many of them made with materials brought to this place from the Magdalena River valley, such as quartzite. At Tequendama, evidence for domestication of guinea pigs has been uncovered.</p><br>
<h3>Holocene</h3><br>
<p>Around 10,000 years BP, the last glaciation ended and the Andean forests appeared again. The lithic instruments show a rise in recollecting activities, with rodents and vegetables consumed, and lower amounts of large animals hunted. The El Abra caves were abandoned gradually, while other nearby rock shelters like Nemocón and open area settlements as Checua were populated.</p><br>
<h3>Aguazuque</h3><br>
<p>In Aguazuque, around 5,000 BP, agriculture was established on elevated terraces, grinding stone instruments can be observed in association with itinerant habits. The abriense type instruments disappear.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>While access to the western Zipaquirá part of the rock formation is restricted as it is located on private lands, the eastern area in Tocancipá is accessible and around 20 climbing routes have been constructed. The climbing is comparable but more challenging than the famous routes of Suesca, due to the overhanging character of the formation.</p><br>
<p>Trinity-St. Pauls Episcopal Church in New Rochelle in Westchester County, New York was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. It is located at the northwest corner of Huguenot Street  and Division Street. This church represents the body of the majority group of New Rochelles founding Huguenot French Calvinistic congregation that conformed to the liturgy of the established Church of England in June 1709. King George III gave Trinity its first charter in 1762. After the American Revolutionary War, Trinity became a parish of the Protestant Episcopal Church of America.</p><br>
<p>The present building is the third church erected by the conformist congregation. It is the immediate successor of a wooden church building erected in 1823 - 1824. It stands on land that was conveyed to the church wardens by Aman Guion in 1743. The cornerstone was laid on August 13, 1862, the church was opened for worship September 13, 1863, and the tower completed November 30, 1864. The church was designed by Richard Upjohn & Son, known for their gothic revival architecture.</p><br>
<p>A parish house was added on the western side of the church in 1892. Constructed of the same granite and brownstone materials as the church, the structure was designed by architect F. Carlos Merry, who also designed the New Rochelle Trust building on Main Street.</p><br>
<h2>Church heirlooms</h2><br>
<p>Within the stone walls of the church are a number of artifacts, or heirlooms, that have been handed down through generations of this 300-year-old congregation. They highlight the long history of the church and of the New Rochelle community. A silver chalice presented to the church by Queen Anne of England, received after its conformation to the Church of England in 1709, is inscribed "Anne Regina".</p><br>
<p>The stained glass windows in the chancel are memorials to Rev. Bondet, Rev. Pierre Stouppe and Rev. Michael Houdin, Trinity&#39;s first three ministers. Many other stained glass windows, some of which were crafted by Tiffany, grace the church. The 19th and 20th century congregants, for whom the windows were dedicated, include such names as Iselin, Weyman, Davenport, Thorne and Lathers.</p><br>
<p>The old bell originally in the French Huguenot Church, Eglise du St. Esperit, on Pine Street in New York City, is preserved as a relic in the tower room. In 1823, it was presented to Trinity Church, New Rochelle, and hung up in the tower of the wooden church erected in 1823 - 1824.</p><br>
<h2>Huguenot Burying Ground</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of the church and the Parish House has a rich history that spans three centuries. On Trinity’s land, three former town cemeteries now exist as one. Beginning with the first burial, that of James Bertine’s daughter in 1802, a cemetery was established just west of the present Parish House and became known as the "Trinity Graveyard". Just north of the church site was the private burial ground of the Allaire family, founding members of the community. A monument to "Alexander the Huguenot" marked the plot and the grave of its first burial. Captain Allaire died in 1782, and his descendants continued to be buried in the family plot until the 1940s. The third and oldest cemetery, the Huguenot Burying Ground, was located just beyond the Allaire&#39;s at the southwest side of Division Street at the corner of Union Avenue. The plot was part of the farm of Louis Bongrand, one of the first Huguenot settlers of the Town. In 1693 he gave the plot to the future residents of New Rochelle for a churchyard to bury their dead. The land southeast of the plot was eventually acquired by Trinity Church and all boundaries between the three cemeteries were erased. The arrival of the New York-New Haven railway line in 1849 had carved its way through the village, physically splitting the two once more. A large tract church land had been acquired by Westchester County which ran along the north side of the right of way of the railroad for the route of the projected Pelham-Port Chester Parkway. Although the parkway had not yet been built, the purchase required to removal of the bodies and tombstones from it to the church land on the south side of the railroad. The old burial ground had become otherwise nearly obliterated due to a long period of neglect, the destruction of headstones, and the laying out of new plots over older, unmarked ones. By the time of construction of the New England Thruway in 1956, just one of the final resting places was left to remain, with the Huguenot Burying Ground and the Allaire family cemetery being eliminated for the new six-lane highway.</p><br>
<p>After much litigation and negotiation, the graves of the two cemeteries were removed, an endeavor paid for by the New England Thruway, and coordinated by Rev. Philip M. Styles of Trinity Church. The early New Rochelleans and their descendants were dug up, placed in special boxes and reburied on the church’s land. Although 178 graves were opened, it is estimated that more than 400 Huguenots and Siwanoy Indian "friends" had been buried in the first cemetery. A monument in the Trinity yard marks the re-interred graves of the unknowns, and the extant stones moved along with the remains are placed nearby. The church&#39;s "Huguenot Memorial Cemetery", or "Huguenot Burying Ground", has since been recognized as an historic cemetery that is the resting place for a wide cross section of the Huguenot founders, early settlers and other prominent citizens.</p><br>
<p>TrinityStPaulsNewRochelle0001.JPG</p><br>
<p>TrinityChurch1800s.PNG</p><br>
<p>Blue Lake is a small lake adjacent to the town of Saint Bathans in Central Otago, New Zealand. The lake is man-made, the result of sluicing operations that began in 1873 when John Ewing  formed the St.Bathans Channel Company, to mine the Kildare Hill Gold Claim in St Bathans. His company constructed a tailings channel and introduced hydraulic elevating to work the claim. As this work progressed the Kildare Hill Claim became the site of the deepest hydraulic elevating operation in the world, that would turn a 120-metre hill into a 68-metre hole. Work stopped in 1902 when there was insufficient fall in the tailings channel to carry away the tailings. By 1905 John Ewing was bankrupt as a result of poor investments in other locations. The Kildare Hill Claim was then taken up by the Scandinavian Water Race Company in that year. This company restarted operations and worked the claim until 1932, when it was finally abandoned due to the fear of undermining the town of St Bathans. Natural drainage from the surrounding hills filled the hole with water and created the present day lake. The Blue Lake is a key feature of modern-day St. Bathans and is used for swimming, fishing, bodyboarding, and kayaking.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Guide to the Otago Goldfields Heritage Trail, Gerald Garrick Cunningham, 2004</p><br>
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<p>Cairo Rosenwald School is a former school for African-American children located in the unincorporated community of Cairo, Sumner County, Tennessee. It was one of seven Rosenwald schools built in the county.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the school began in 1922 and was completed in 1923. The Julius Rosenwald Fund provided $500 toward the construction cost, the African-American community of Cairo raised $700 toward the project cost, and the Tennessee public school fund provided the remaining $700.</p><br>
<p>The school was built according to a standard design for a one-teacher Rosenwald school. Built on a stone foundation, it has a gable-end entrance and weatherboard siding. Its interior contains one classroom, with two cloak closets on either side of the entrance door and a platform across the end of the building opposite the door. Modernization efforts after World War II included addition of electric wiring and indoor plumbing, resulting in one of the cloak closets being converted to a restroom.</p><br>
<p>The school was operated until 1959, serving grades 1 through 8. After it closed due to school consolidation, it became a community center. In 1996, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places due to efforts by the Cairo Improvement Club. The building underwent a major restoration in 2008–2009 under the direction of the Tennessee Preservation Trust and the Middle Tennessee State University Center for Historic Preservation. The restoration project was assisted by a grant award of $46,987 from Lowe’s Charitable and Educational Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Gallatin First Presbyterian Church is a historic church in Gallatin, Sumner County, Tennessee, affiliated with Presbyterian Church .</p><br>
<p>It occupies the oldest church building in Gallatin in continuous existence. The congregation was organized on October 25, 1828. Church construction took place during 1836-1837. It is built in the early Greek Revival architectural style.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary was used as a hospital for Federal troops during the Civil War. The same room suffered major fire damage, from an unattended candle, in December 2004. As a result, the sanctuary was gutted and rebuilt over the course of the following year.</p><br>
<p>The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. It is also registered with the Presbyterian Historical Society of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and is designated as an American Presbyterian and Reformed Historical Site.</p><br>
<p>Rose Mont is a Greek Revival style house built in Gallatin, Sumner County, Tennessee, United States. It was built by Judge Josephus Conn Guild for his family, and completed in 1842. Once the site of the area&#39;s largest thoroughbred horse farm with 500 acre, it is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Rosemont. In 1993 the property was purchased by the City of Gallatin and the Rose Mont Restoration Foundation. The house is open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Rose Mont was built by Judge Josephus Conn Guild (1802–1883) for his family. It was begun in 1836 and completed in 1842. All of the materials for its construction were obtained on the property.</p><br>
<p>Rose Monts architecture is a blend of Greek Revival and Palladian styles. These architectural styles not commonly seen in Middle Tennessee homes of the era, which is typified by Federal or Georgian-style houses with a front entry hall containing a staircase to the second floor. Judge Guilds departure from the local architectural fashions was due to his favorable impression of the Creole-style houses he had seen on frequent trips to Louisiana. Creole elements in Rose Mont include the use of loggias and galleries to connect separate wings, wide porches, open-air halls and staircases, large windows, a raised basement, and an over-hanging roof. The house&#39;s main facade employed a classic Italian design by Andrea Palladio, whose influence is seen in the design of many mid-19th century plantation houses in the southern United States.</p><br>
<p>Rose Mont faces the east, so hot summer sun never falls on the main parlor, keeping it cooler. The name of the house derived from a large rose garden that Judge Guild&#39;s wife, Catherine Blackmore Guild (1803–1875), maintained on the north side of the house.</p><br>
<p>In its early years, the house was the center for a 500 acre working farm that raised thoroughbred horses and longhorn cattle. In 1978 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places under the name "Rosemont". It was occupied by members of the Guild family from its construction until 1993, when it was acquired by the City of Gallatin and the Rose Mont Restoration Foundation.</p><br>
<p>It is open Tuesdays through Saturdays for guided tours from April 15 through October 31. The mansion and its reception hall are available for rental to the public.</p><br>
<p>Trousdale Place is a historic mansion in Gallatin, Sumner County, Tennessee. It was the home of John H. Bowen, local attorney and member of the United States House of Representatives, and of governor of Tennessee William Trousdale.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Trousdale Place is a two-story Federal-style brick structure with staggered Flemish-bond brickwork.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>John Bowen built the house circa 1813. Bowen died in 1822. William Trousdale purchased the house in 1836 and later became Governor of Tennessee.The site of the house had been part of a North Carolina land grant to Trousdale’s father, who had sold it in 1802 for the platting of the town of Gallatin. The house was Trousdales principal residence until his death there in 1872. His widow lived there until her death in the following decade, when the house was passed to their son, Julius Trousdale. After the 1899 deaths of Julius and his only living child, Julius widow, Annie Berry Trousdale, deeded the home to a local chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Since then, the house has been known as Trousdale Place. A Confederate monument was installed on the front lawn in 1903.</p><br>
<p>The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. By 1979, the museum was ready to build its own facility and was given permission build on the grounds of Trousdale Place.</p><br>
<p>Today the house shares its grounds with the Sumner County Museum and is open to the public for tours by appointment. The interior of the house is furnished with original Trousdale furniture. It also contains a small library focused on the Confederacy.</p><br>
<p>Sawel Mountain is the highest peak in the Sperrin Mountains, and the 8th highest in Northern Ireland. It is also the highest mountain in Northern Ireland outside of the Mourne Mountain range located in County Down. To the north of Sawel is County Londonderry, and to the south, County Tyrone. The summit is 678 m high and is composed of crystalline limestone. Around the peak, there is "montane heathland", with plant life including heather, bilberries and cowberries, although this is being damaged by hillwalking and grazing. Sawel is the source of the River Faughan, a 29 mi long tributary of the River Foyle.</p><br>
<p>The Irish name of the mountain is a reference to a glen or hollow on the side of Sawel. It was also historically called Slieve Sawel, Slieve being an anglicization of Sliabh ("mountain").</p><br>
<p>Rock Castle State Historic Site, located in Hendersonville, Sumner County, Tennessee, is the former home of Daniel Smith. Construction began in 1784; its completion was delayed by Indian attacks until 1791. It is listed with the National Register of Historic Places and is open to the public. It is one of the Tennessee Historical Commission&#39;s State-Owned Historic Sites and is operated by the Friends of Rock Castle in partnership with the Tennessee Historical Commission.</p><br>
<h2>Daniel Smith</h2><br>
<p>Daniel Smith served as a captain in Lord Dunmore&#39;s War, colonel in the American Revolution, and Brigadier General of the militia in the Metro District. He was a member of the committee to frame the USA Bill of Rights, Territorial Secretary of State, and USA Senator. He also surveyed land boundaries in Middle Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Smith was born in Stafford County, Virginia in 1748 as a twin. He was baptized in Elbo Warren Baptist Church October 24, which was five days before his twin sister, Sarah, died. Smith lived in Baltimore, Maryland before he moved into the home of Dr. Thomas Walker. At Walker’s, Smith studied medicine and surveying. Dr. Walker was famous for being the supposed teacher of Thomas Jefferson. There have been questions as to whether Jefferson and Smith actually knew each other. The answer is yes. Jefferson wrote</p><br>
<p>Smith also studied at the College of William and Mary. The College does not have his name listed as a student. However, his certificate of surveying for the State of Virginia was certified by the college, this apparently does not mean that he was a student there.</p><br>
<p>Smith served in the American Revolutionary War. He was a Captain and was appointed a Justice of the Peace by Patrick Henry. He was promoted to Major of the Washington County, Tennessee Militia. In 1778, Daniel Smith was appointed commissioner to locate roads. In 1779, along with Dr. Walker, he was appointed to extend the line between Virginia and North Carolina. This later became the divisional lines of Kentucky and Tennessee. Afterward, in April 1778, now Major Smith was recommended to become the Sheriff of Washington County. He was appointed Commissioner of Tax in the same year. Later that same year, Smith was appointed Examiner of the Bills of Credit.</p><br>
<p>Later Smith became Indian negotiator, where he negotiated most of the treaties with the Cherokee Indians in Tennessee. Smith, as mapmaker, created maps of Tennessee and Kentucky. He is the man that named the state “Tenasee” or pronounced Ten-ah-see, with pronunciation of the center syllable. This was named after a Cherokee village of the same name in the eastern part of the state. Smith drafted the State Constitution of Tennessee and was one of the men who drafted a constitution for the Continental Congress in 1796.</p><br>
<p>In 1773, Smith married Sarah. In 1783 Major Smith moved to the area that would become Tennessee with his wife and two young children to take up land that was given to him by the State of Virginia for his services in the Revolutionary War. He moved into a small log cabin. The Smith family lived in this for only a short time before the local American Indians burned it down in one of many isolated raids.</p><br>
<p>His best friend and neighbor was Andrew Jackson. Jackson’s original log cabin was in Hunter’s Hill, where the remains are still visible. This was a two-story structure down the river from where Smith’s home was. Smith filled the vacancy in the Senate that was left open by Jackson’s resignation. Smith was also an in-law of Jackson.</p><br>
<h2>Sarah Michie Smith</h2><br>
<p>Sarah was born in 1755, most likely in Maryland. Family oral tradition states that she was from the eastern shores of that state. Oral tradition also states that she was related to those that built the Michie Tavern near Charlottesville. This family migrated from the shores to Albermarle Country in the mid-1700s. There is the possibility that Sarah could have been married before to someone with the last name of Woods if she is the same Sarah Michie named in will of John Michie in the same location in 1772. She would have been a seventeen-year-old widow. In any case, one year later Daniel Smith’s Sarah became his bride. It is true that Daniel Smith (surveyor) surveyed much land for many men of the Michie family. So, it may or may not have been the same Sarah. What ever relation to that of the tavern keepers, it is sure that Dr. Walker was the matchmaker of the pair!</p><br>
<p>Sarah married Daniel Smith and lived on the Virginia frontier. Here is where she gave birth to their two children, George and Mary Ann (nicknamed Polly). All four moved to the Cumberland County, Tennessee in 1783 or 1784. They “arrived in October, and spent at least the first winter in a log cabin. Isolated… under very real danger from Indian attack.” Because of her husband’s jobs, she found herself alone with her children most of the time. The family described her with “uncommon strength and courage with a strong sense of humor.” This was obviously true as there is a very well known letter from her to her husband that says</p><br>
<p>“I still find myself under the disagreeable necessity of conversing with you on paper or not at all.”</p><br>
<p>Because of location of her home and her station of being married to a Senator, she found her friends in high places also. Her best friend was Rachel Jackson, Andrew Jackson’s wife. This was still an isolated location and given the scandalization of the Jackson marriage, Rachel did not have very many friends. However, she did have a close friend in Sarah, and found herself at the home of the Smith’s often.</p><br>
<h2>Polly Smith Donelson</h2><br>
<p>Polly was the daughter of Daniel and Sarah. She was scheduled to leave for boarding school in Philadelphia where she was expected to learn the crafts required of ladies. However, she did not want to leave because she had fallen in love with a local man. This man was the brother of Rachel Jackson. Samuel Donelson was also madly in love with Polly. Polly’s father was not interested in this couple. So, an elopement was planned and carried off. The great thing for these two was that Samuel’s brother-in-law was a romantic. Jackson assisted Polly by helping her down a grapevine ladder from her bedroom window to the arms of her lover. Andrew Jackson, Samuel Donelson and Polly Smith traversed down the river to the Jackson’s home where a minister was waiting and had the two married immediately. Later, two children of this match grew up at The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee) under Rachel and Andrew Jackson’s care.</p><br>
<h2>Sarah Berry</h2><br>
<p>Sarah Crosby Berry was the daughter of Nannie Smith and Horatio Berry from Hazel Path, which is also on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Sumner County, Tennessee. At a very young age she entered Peabody College and received her Bachelor of Science in 1916 for scientific farming. She then became the manager of her great-great-great grandfather, Daniel Smith’s farm, Rock Castle. She managed the farm by using the techniques that she learned in college and the most up-to-date machinery and technology available. The "Southern Agriculturist" named her the most “Outstanding Woman Farmer of Tennessee” in 1918. She also was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution, and a founding member of "The Friends of Rock Castle".</p><br>
<h2>Enslaved People at Rock Castle</h2><br>
<p>Few records survive to inform the history of the enslaved at Rock Castle. However, two enslaved people frequently appear in surviving documents. An enslaved woman named Easter, was made to work in the house, and probably slept in the room near the children upstairs, or in a cabin with her husband, Alfred, whom the Smith family referred to as "Uncle Alfred". An unnamed enslaved person who worked as a foreman on the farm was abducted by local native people, possibly Cherokee, and take east. When Smith was a Senator, the enslaved man contacted him, to negotiate a bounty so that he could be free from his captors. $900 was paid to the native people, and was enslaved at Rock Castle once more. The enslaved man was quoted as saying that he was “anxious to return to his old master and home.” By 1860, Rock Castle had amassed an enslaved workforce of 98 people. In 1833, there are two letters of bill of sale that name the following enslaved people being sold from George Smith to Harry Smith:</p><br>
<p>Isaac, Martin, Charles, Cheshire, Larkin, Ina, Toby, Wilson, David, Henry, Sarah, Rachel, Judy or Juda, Baty, Patricia and her two children, Henrietta, Silva or Silvia, Mitchel, Daniel and Jeffrey.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion and grounds</h2><br>
<p>In 1788, Daniel Smith (surveyor) acquired 4,722 acre of land in Sumner County, Tennessee along the Cumberland River and Drake’s Creek. This was added to his land grant from North Carolina for his services to the Revolutionary War. This made a total of 3,140 acre for Senator Dan Smith. Polly, Daniel and Sarah’s daughter, received 151 acre at the death of her father. Sarah received the land below this, in the amount of 1,510 acre. The rest of the land, including the mansion went to the son, George Smith. Over time, land was sold off for newer housing. Now, 18 acre adjoin the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was originally located near a stream that is no longer there.</p><br>
<p>There were many slave cabins, a springhouse, and a smoke house. When Old Hickory Lake was created in 1954, submerged most of the area behind the house. The Smoke house was raised to accommodate the dirt being brought in to keep the waters at bay. The new blocks are easily visible against the old blocks. Other buildings included the carriage house and barns.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was built in three sections over ten to twelve years. The mansion was completed in 1784 by quarrying the rocks on site. The initial home was three stories, of which the kitchen maintained the bottom floor, the second floor was the bedroom, and the top floor was an attic. All family members stayed in this one bedroom. The stone created a fireproof “castle” that protected the family from cooking and Indian raid fires. The second edition was also three stories. The bottom is a basement, the second story is the dining room, and the third is a room that originally held four dormers, but currently has none. There is no evidence of what the room was originally used as. The wood over and around the fireplace is black-maple that was taken from the grounds. The third edition was the front of the house, and the most formal. This is where the master bedroom is, downstairs, of which may have been a retiring room initially. It also contains Daniel’s office, of which are the original walls, where they used faux painting. The upstairs contains George’s bedroom and another room, of which the original use is unknown. The mansion house was finally created in what would be called the earliest known version of Federal Style housing in Tennessee. However, the son, George, or George’s son Harry, added the front porch, which changed the style to Greek revival, perhaps because of the style of his time.There are a total of eight rooms that were lived in within the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Items that could not be made on the grounds were sent for from the East. These included glass for the windows, hinges, and nails. The cement used between the blocks was of lime mortar and sand. The stones were placed in a “length-wise and width-wise alternately… Flemish bond pattern.” The roof was originally smooth-pine shingles, and a white fence surrounded the house, with a concrete horse-mounting block at the entrance.The fence is original to the house, with the exception of timely maintenance.</p><br>
<p>Smith Hansborough, who appears to have been Daniel’s nephew, did the work on the building. He may also have been the overseer, because in one of his letters to Daniel, not only did he inform the owner of how progress on the house was going, but he also asked where the wheat for the year was to be sewn. This perhaps could indicate that Daniel was the one in charge of the building of house even though he was away.</p><br>
<p>There was also an herb garden and peach orchard on the grounds. The Smith’s were locally famous for their peach brandy, which was sold at five shillings per gallon. Other herbs in the garden were grown for enjoyment and medicinal purposes. Since Daniel Smith had training in the medical field, his gardens would surely have been productive. Herbs that were grown may have included rosemary and mint, which helps in digestion and depression. Another may have been the damask rose, which was considered the queen of flowers. It was used for perfumes, used to burn, and for flavoring. The main farm grew wheat and cotton.</p><br>
<h2>Family cemetery</h2><br>
<p>There are over fifty family members buried within the small family cemetery on site. The two largest markers are for the founding members, Daniel and Sarah Michie Smith and their son Colonel George Smith. They both have a table-like marker that apparently covers the entire grave. Senator Smith’s is breaking down more, but can still be read. There are other small markers, as well as obelisk style markers and pediment style markers within. A stone fence with an iron gate surrounds the cemetery. The stones were quarried using the same stone as the mansion. Admission to the cemetery is free.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>There are four original items within the mansion that belonged to the first Smiths. They are the Sugar chest, the blanket chest, Senator Smith’s desk and the original land grant from the State of North Carolina. One hundred of Daniel Smith’s books are in the museum archives. George’s sideboard and a later generation’s grandfather clock is also within the mansion. Costs of entering the mansion are $5.00 for adults and $4.00 for seniors and students.</p><br>
<p>Because the Smiths were famous for their peach brandy, a recent attempt has been made to recreate the peach orchard. Peach trees and apple trees have been recently purchased from Monticello. They are heirloom seedlings. The seedlings were started sometime in 2012. Previously, the Daughters of the American Revolution had tried to plant peach trees in the center island. However, due to drought, those did not survive. Visitors can visit the seedling orchard at no cost. However, a donation for tree replacement is appreciated.</p><br>
<p>The State of Tennessee owns the property and the buildings at Rock Castle. The Tennessee Historical Commission provides a partial annual operating grant to the site and is responsible for major maintenance at the property. The Friends of Rock Castle, Inc. owns all of the artifacts. Prisoners mow the front yard with an agreement with the City of Hendersonville Police Department, and the historic site. The same police department has dog training and trials on the grounds weekly. This is done to foster relationships with the police department and people of Hendersonville because it gives people a sense of ownership and pride in historic properties. It also knows the grounds in case of an emergency.</p><br>
<p>The Friends of Rock Castle was formed in 1969 at time when the mansion and grounds were sold to the state from a Smith descendant. Board members take pride in the fact that Smith relatives have only owned the house. Sarah Crosby Berry was one of the founding members of the board. Each board member, save one, serves a three-year term. There are fifteen board members, including a “board member for life” who is Melinda Gaines, who has been on the board over twenty years. Most board members are very active with the site.</p><br>
<p>At the time of museum creation, the State of Tennessee removed years of updates to the mansion. One update was the removal of a concrete floor in a bathroom, which turned out to be the kitchen. Sarah Berry assisted with the selection of the stones for the flooring based on her memory from when she was a child. Dormers were removed from the central portion of the house with the assumption that they were added later. However, they were actually original to that edition of the mansion, but are too expensive to restore at this point.</p><br>
<p>Most rooms are currently being interpreted from the late eighteenth century to the early nineteenth century Regency era. The room off the dining room is being interpreted as the master bedroom because it is known that later in life, the Smiths did sleep in this room. However, there is no proof that it was built and utilized as such originally. The room immediately above is being used as an exhibit room because there is no proof of use. The room where the dormers had been is extremely dark. It is being interpreted as a slave quarter at this time. In total, visitors are able to view all eight rooms in the house today.</p><br>
<p>Bledsoes Station, also known as Bledsoes Fort, was an 18th-century, fortified, frontier, white settlement located in what is now Castalian Springs, Sumner County, Tennessee. The fort was built by long hunter and Sumner County pioneer Isaac Bledsoe  in the early 1780s to protect Upper Cumberland settlers and migrants from hostile Native American attacks. While the fort is no longer standing, its location has been verified by archaeological excavations. The site is now part of Bledsoes Fort Historical Park, a public park established in 1989 by Sumner County residents and Bledsoes descendants.</p><br>
<p>Bledsoes Station was one of a series of frontier outposts built in the Upper Cumberland during the first major migration of Euro-American settlers into the Middle Tennessee area following the American Revolution. The fort was a convenient stopover along Averys Trace&mdash;the main road connecting East and Middle Tennessee at the time. The flood of settlers into the region brought inevitable conflict with the regions Native American inhabitants, and dozens of settlers were killed in the late 1780s and early 1790s. Isaac Bledsoes brother Anthony was killed in an ambush at the fort in 1788, and Isaac was killed while tending a field outside the fort in 1793. The end of the Cherokee–American wars, the following year, ended much of the violence in the region and reduced the fort&#39;s necessity.</p><br>
<p>Bledsoes Fort Historical Park protects the forts excavation site, as an outline of the fort&#39;s walls can be discerned from former excavation trenches, as well as several historic structures, including the Nathaniel Parker Cabin and Hugh Rogan Cottage, who were compatriots of Isaac Bledsoe and a pioneer cemetery, with a large obelisk, dedicated to the Bledsoe brothers. The Castalian Springs Mound Site and the Wynnewood State Historic Site are located immediately east of the park, and the Cragfont State Historic Site is located immediately to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical setting</h2><br>
<p>Bledsoes Station was located on a hill slope between Bledsoe Creek to the west and Bledsoe Lick Creek to the east. Both streams empty into the Old Hickory Lake impoundment of the Cumberland River just over a mile to the south. The hill is relatively blunt and consists of open fields alternating with densely forested areas. The top of the hill is used as a flying zone for radio-controlled airplanes. The spring that furnished the minerals for Bledsoes Lick flows at the base of the hill a few hundred yards east of the fort site.</p><br>
<p>Bledsoes Fort Historical Park covers most of the hill between the Sumner County RC Flyers airfield and Rock Springs Road. Tennessee State Route 25, also, known as, Hartsville Pike, provides the parks southern boundary and main access. The park is roughly halfway between Hartsville, to the east and Gallatin to the west, and lies approximately 35 mi northeast of Nashville.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Native-American settlements</h3><br>
<p>For thousands of years, the mineral springs at Bledsoes Lick attracted buffalo and other large animals, and subsequently drew Native American hunters to the area. Native Americans were hunting around Bledsoes Lick as early as 12,000 years ago during the Paleo-Indian period, and camped sporadically in the area throughout the Archaic (8000-1000 BC) and Woodland (1000 BC - 1000 AD) periods. During the Mississippian period (c. 1000&ndash;1450 AD), a substantial village had been established at the Castalian Springs Mound Site, a few hundred yards from the mineral springs. The village covered 40 acre and contained at least 12 mounds. By the time, the first Euro-American explorers arrived in the area in the mid-18th century, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Creek claimed the area as a hunting ground.</p><br>
<h3>European-American exploration and hunting expeditions</h3><br>
<p>Among the first documented English-American explorers, in the Upper Cumberland region, were the long hunters, so-called, because of the long duration of their hunting expeditions. The long hunters typically followed the Cumberland River and its headwaters, from southwestern Virginia into Middle Tennessee. Expeditions, led by Henry Scaggs in 1765 and James Smith in 1766, passed through what is now Sumner County, Kentucky and hunted extensively in the Upper Cumberland region. In 1769, an expedition led by Kasper Mansker spent several months in the Upper Cumberland area, eventually sending two canoes full of furs downriver to Natchez, Mississippi. Mansker returned to the Upper Cumberland in 1771 with a larger group of hunters&mdash; among them Isaac Bledsoe&mdash; and collected several thousand skins. In 1772, Mansker and Bledsoe led a third expedition to the Upper Cumberland region. This group established a base camp along Station Camp Creek (giving the creek its name) a few miles to the west near Gallatin. It was during this third expedition that Bledsoe followed the ancient buffalo paths to the creek and salt lick that now bear his name, and where he would eventually construct his fort.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1770s, longhunter and explorer, Thomas "Bigfoot" Spencer led a hunting expedition, that camped near Bledsoe&#39;s Lick. Spencer remained throughout 1778, spending the winter in a hollowed-out sycamore tree, just south of the mineral springs. Spencer spent much of the year building cabins in the area, believing (mistakenly) that if he constructed cabins on certain tracts of land, he could lay claim to these tracts.</p><br>
<h3>European-American settlement and Indian hostilities</h3><br>
<p>The Bledsoe brothers, Isaac and Anthony, were born in Virginia in the early 1730s. Anthony Bledsoe, the older of the two, served in the French and Indian War and in various capacities with the Virginia militia. He commanded Fort Patrick Henry at Long Island of the Holston in 1776 and was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates the following year. Isaac Bledsoe also served in the French and Indian War, and following the long hunting excursions of the early 1770s, Bledsoe joined William Christian&#39;s 1776 punitive expedition against the Cherokee. In 1779, North Carolina appointed Anthony Bledsoe to lead a surveying party to Middle Tennessee. Isaac Bledsoe followed in 1781.</p><br>
<p>Isaac Bledsoe probably began building Bledsoes Station, shortly after his arrival, although, he didnt move his family, into the fort until 1783. Around the time Bledsoes Station was completed, Anthony Bledsoe completed a fort at Greenfield 2.5 mi north of Bledsoes Station. As settlers poured into the Upper Cumberland region, conflict with the regions Native American inhabitants intensified. The Chickamaugas&mdash; a renegade branch of the Cherokee&mdash; had for the most part been at war with the United States since 1776, and opposed land concessions that would allow Euro-American settlers to move into the Middle Tennessee area permanently. In 1782, frontiersman Hugh Rogan (1747–1814) was nearly killed in an ambush in the vicinity of what is now Cragfont. A hunting party led by Thomas Spencer was attacked at Drakes Creek in 1784. Spencer survived, but was later killed in an ambush near Crab Orchard. In 1786, Anthony Bledsoe wrote a letter to North Carolina governor Richard Caswell reporting that 14 settlers had been killed that year and sought permission to attack the Chickamaugas. A schoolmaster named George Hamilton was shot and badly wounded at Bledsoes Station in 1787. As attacks increased, Anthony Bledsoe moved his family from Greenfield to Bledsoes Station, which afforded better protection, but in 1788 he was shot and mortally wounded when he accidentally stepped into a section of the fort vulnerable to hostile fire. During the engagement, Hugh Rogan&mdash; who was in the fort at the time&mdash; volunteered to try to sneak to a nearby fort to obtain means for making a fire and providing light by which the dying Bledsoe could draw up a will.</p><br>
<p>Conflict between the Chickamaugas and the Upper Cumberland settlers continued into the early 1790s. Zieglers Fort (at what is now Bledsoe Creek State Park a few miles southwest of Bledsoes Lick) was overrun in 1792, and Morgans Station (northwest of Bledsoes Lick) was nearly burned a few months later. In 1793, Isaac Bledsoe was shot and killed while walking through a field near Bledsoe&#39;s Station. The following year, a son of Anthony Bledsoe (named Anthony) and a nephew of Anthony and Isaac (also named Anthony) were both ambushed and killed near Rock Castle at what is now Hendersonville. Thomas Bledsoe, another son of Anthony Bledsoe, was ambushed and killed a few months later. Hostilities between the settlers and the Chickamaugas finally subsided when the 1794 Treaty of Tellico brought an end to the Cherokee–American wars.</p><br>
<h3>First road built connecting Fort Southwest Point to Nashville, Tennessee</h3><br>
<p>The first major road connecting the Upper Cumberland region with settlements to the east, known as Averys Trace, was completed in 1788. The road, which connected Fort Southwest Point with Nashville, passed a few hundred feet east of Bledsoes Station. Guests at Bledsoes Station in the 1790s included French botanist André Michaux and Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans and later king of France. General James Winchester, who helped establish Cairo to the southwest and was later instrumental in the founding of Memphis, purchased Bledsoes Station in 1797. The following year, Winchester completed Cragfont near Bledsoe Creek about a mile to the west.</p><br>
<p>In 1807, a pioneer from North Carolina named Jeremiah Belote (d. 1822) purchased Bledsoe&#39;s Lick, and his descendants would retain possession of the property for several decades.</p><br>
<h2>Bledsoe's Fort Historical Park</h2><br>
<p>Following Winchesters death in 1826, his daughter, Almira Wynne, inherited what is now the Wynnewood State Historical Site. Wynnewood&mdash; the largest extant log structure in the state&mdash; was completed in 1830 and operated as an inn. During this period, the Winchester family also managed to change the name of Bledsoes Lick to "Castalian Springs", the name being derived from the spring of mythological importance near Delphi in Greece. Castalian Springs thrived sporadically, as a health resort until 1914. The Bledsoe&#39;s Station site was purchased by Sumner County in 1989.</p><br>
<p>Bledsoes Fort Historical Park consists of approximately 80 acre, and includes the Bledsoes Station site and several other features important to the early history of the Upper Cumberland region. The park is owned by Sumner County and maintained by the Bledsoes Lick Historical Association. A short loop trail&mdash; part of which follows a section of Averys Trace&mdash; provides access to the fort site and other features.</p><br>
<h3>Historical features at Bledsoe's Fort Historical Park</h3><br>
<p>Bledsoes Station site &mdash; the site of Bledsoes Station was excavated by Middle Tennessee State University in the late 1990s. Excavators discovered several root cellars (indicating the presence of log cabins) and the fort&#39;s stockade. The excavation trench lines remain, and a small platform overlooks the site.</p><br>
<p>Hugh Rogan Cottage &mdash; Hugh Rogans stone cottage was built a few miles north of Bledsoes Lick around 1800. The cottages architecture was heavily influenced by folk traditions of Rogans native Ireland, namely the low gabled roof and corresponding doors and windows. The cottage was dismantled and moved to the park in 1998.</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Parker Cabin &mdash; Nathaniel Parkers cabin is a typical pioneer log cabin, built in the 1780s. The cabin was originally located a few miles north of Bledsoes Lick and later dismantled and moved to the park. Parker married Mary Ramsey Bledsoe&mdash; the widow of Anthony Bledsoe&mdash; in the 1790s and commanded the fort at Greenfield.</p><br>
<p>Belote Cemetery &mdash; the Belote Cemetery (also called the "Pioneer Cemetery") is located along a section of Averys Trace a few hundred yards southeast of the fort site and contains the graves of various early settlers in the Bledsoes Lick area. The cemetery&#39;s most prominent feature is a 15 ft obelisk erected by the Bledsoe family in 1908 as a monument to Isaac and Anthony Bledsoe.</p><br>
<p>Long hunter camp &mdash; the long hunter camp is a demonstration area located along a spring near the ancient salt lick. MTSU has constructed a "lean-to" structure believed to be typical of shelters used at 18th-century long hunter base camps.</p><br>
<p>Belote springhouse &mdash; the ruins of a springhouse used by the Belote family in the 19th century are located along a spring in the Bledsoe&#39;s Lick area, near the Long hunter camp.</p><br>
<p>The Cavern of the Skulls &mdash; the Cavern of the Skulls is a cave located a few hundred feet east of the fort site. The cave&#39;s entrance, which is approximately 5 ft x 10 ft, is closed to the public. 19th-century cave explorers reported the presence of human skulls in the cave, suggesting that the inhabitants of the Cheskiki Mound village may have used the cave to store "trophy" skulls. A ritual scene depicted on a  lends some credence to this hypothesis.</p><br>
<p>Gräsö is an island in Östhammar Municipality, off the coast of Uppland province on the eastern coast of Sweden. It is also the name of a village on the island which lies at the southern end of the Gulf of Bothnia.</p><br>
<p>The island has an area of 93 km&sup2; and a population of about 800. The island has a mixture of fields and woodland. It is a popular summer resort.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Gräsö and the smaller island of Örskär to the north are the most northerly of the Roslagen islands, the northern part of the Stockholm archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Gräsö may be reached by ferry from Öregrund on the mainland to the west.</p><br>
<p>The island has a gently rolling terrain with woods mixed with cultivated fields and pasture.</p><br>
<p>There is abundant wildlife including fox, badger, deer and elk. Sea eagles nest on the island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the past the people lived mainly on fishing, hunting and farming.</p><br>
<p>There is a graveyard from the Viking age in the grazed pasture to the east of Gräsö gård, with 55 graves.</p><br>
<p>This was probably beside a trading post that later gained a more settled farming population practicing arable farming and raising cattle.</p><br>
<p>In 1548 Gustav Vasa evicted the famers from the region and founded a new estate at Gräsö gård.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1600s the farmstead was converted into a manor.</p><br>
<p>Gräsö Church was founded in 1695 and consecrated in 1697.</p><br>
<p>In 1719 the Russians raided the island, looting and burning all the farm buildings.</p><br>
<p>A relic from that time is an altar in Klockarhagen where the Russians held their religious services.</p><br>
<p>The church sacristy was built in 1753 as part of the reconstruction after Russian raids of 1719.</p><br>
<p>The church was restored in 1997 for its 300th anniversary.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>there were about 800 permanent residents, but in the summer the population rises as many visitors come to stay for their holidays.</p><br>
<p>The island has a kindergarten and an elementary school for students up to grade 3.</p><br>
<p>There are many small businesses in the agriculture and handicraft industries.</p><br>
<p>Visitor facilities include hostels and camping.</p><br>
<p>There is a family campground with a restaurant and miniature golf, craft and curio shops and a small market.</p><br>
<p>Gräsö gård is now a nature reserve owned by the municipality, near to the ferry landing.</p><br>
<p>It includes hiking trails, meadows with many flowers, rocks and woods, and picnic areas.</p><br>
<p>Some of the meadows are fenced off, and cows graze in others.</p><br>
<p>There is a 28-bed hostel.</p><br>
<p>The main building was built at the turn of the century after a fire in 1890.</p><br>
<p>Alnön  is an island in the Gulf of Bothnia just outside Sundsvall in Medelpad, Sweden. It has an area of 65 km and a permanent population of 8,298 , although its summertime inhabitants are about twice that number. Most of the island&#39;s inhabitants work in Sundsvall and other towns on the mainland.</p><br>
<p>The island is 15 km long and 6 km wide on the widest spot. It is connected to the mainland by a 1,042 m bridge, which was the longest bridge in Sweden when it was opened in 1964.</p><br>
<p>Evidences of habitation on the island predate the Viking Age, and there are several tumuli on the island from that period. The old stone church near the modern bridge was built in the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>The island saw a population boom in the second half of the 19th century, due to the development of steam-driven sawmills. In 1850 the island had 950 inhabitants, mainly farmers and fishermen, but by 1900 the population had grown to almost 7,000, following the establishment of 18 sawmills between 1860 and 1897.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Alnön was affected some 570 million years ago by a massive volcanic eruption. The northeastern part of the island is rich in carbonate minerals, and it is one of few areas in the world with a carbonatite volcanic complex. Its chemistry is very different from the ordinary granitic rock that form the rest of the island, resulting in a number of unusual minerals, such as borengite, baryte and aegirine.</p><br>
<p>The most famous of the rocks of Alnön is the alnoite, named from the Island, which is a lamprophyre chiefly composed of biotite or phlogopite and melilite as essential minerals, commonly with olivine, calcite and clinopyroxene. Perovskite, apatite, nepheline and garnet may also be present. Diamonds have also been found on Alnön, but only in very small amounts.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<p>Alnö IF</p><br>
<h2>Notable citizens</h2><br>
<p>Tina Nordlund, Football player</p><br>
<p>Andreas Yngvesson, Football player</p><br>
<p>Gunnar Hellström, Director</p><br>
<p>Hjördis Schymberg, Opera singer</p><br>
<p>Bathhouse Row is a collection of bathhouses, associated buildings, and gardens located at Hot Springs National Park in the city of Hot Springs, Arkansas. The bathhouses were included in 1832 when the Federal Government took over four parcels of land to preserve 47 natural hot springs, their mineral waters which lack the sulphur odor of most hot springs, and their area of origin on the lower slopes of Hot Springs Mountain.</p><br>
<p>The existing bathhouses are the third and fourth generations of bathhouses along Hot Springs Creek and some sit directly over the hot springs – the resource for which the area was set aside as the first federal reserve in 1832. The bathhouses are a collection of turn-of-the-century eclectic buildings in neoclassical, renaissance-revival, Spanish and Italianate styles aligned in a linear pattern with formal entrances, outdoor fountains, promenades and other landscape-architectural features. The buildings are illustrative of the popularity of the spa movement in the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bathhouse industry went into a steep decline during the mid-20th century as advancements in medicine made bathing in natural hot springs appear less believable as a remedy for illness.</p><br>
<p>Bathhouse Row was designated a National Historic Landmark on May 28, 1987.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Bathhouse Row contains eight bathhouses aligned in a row: Buckstaff, Fordyce, Hale, Lamar, Maurice, Ozark, Quapaw, and Superior. These were independent, competing, commercial enterprises. The area included in the National Historic Landmark also includes a Grand Promenade on the hill above the bathhouses, an entrance way including fountains, and a National Park Service Administration building.</p><br>
<h3>Buckstaff</h3><br>
<p>Completed in 1912, the elegantly designed Buckstaff Baths operates under National Park Service regulations, its well-trained staff provides a range of services from tradition thermal mineral baths and body massages to Swedish style full body massages. The bathing tubs are private and bathing suits are optional, although visitors may cover themselves between the bathing stations. Services begin with a "Whirlpool Mineral Bath" for $35.00</p><br>
<p>The cream-colored brick building is neoclassical in style with the base, spandrels, friezes, cornices and the parapet finished in white stucco. It was a radical departure from the fanciful structures that preceded it, and compared to the Irish House of Parliament or the Treasury Building. The entrance is divided into seven bays by engaged columns, with a pavilion on each end.</p><br>
<p>Friezes above the two-story doric columns have medallions (paterae) that frame the brass lettered words "Buckstaff Baths" centered above the entrance. Brass handrails border the ramp that leads up to the brass-covered and glazed wood-frame entrance doors. First floor windows are arched; second story windows are rectangular. Those on the third floor are small rectangular windows, with classical urns between them above the cornice that finish the columns. The first floor of the building contains the lobby and mens facilities. Womens facilities are on the second floor. The third floor is a common space containing reading and writing rooms and access to the roof-top sun porches at the north and south ends of the building.</p><br>
<h3>Fordyce (now visitor center)</h3><br>
<p>The Fordyce bathhouse is the most elaborate and was the most expensive of the bathhouses, the cost including fixtures and furniture being $212,749.55 US. It was closed on June 29, 1962, the first of the Row establishments to fall victim to the decline in popularity of therapeutic bathing. Fordyce Bathhouse has served as the park visitor center since 1989.</p><br>
<p>The Fordyce bathhouse was built in 1914–15, designed by George Mann and Eugene John Stern of Little Rock, Arkansas. Its surpassing elegance was intentional, as Samuel Fordyce waited to observe the Maurices construction to find out if he could build "a more attractive and convenient" facility. It was built as a testimonial to the healing waters to which Mr. Fordyce believed he owed his life. It represents the "Golden Age of Bathing" in America, the pinnacle of the American bathing industrys efforts to create a spa rivaling those of Europe. The Fordyce offered all the treatments available in other houses.</p><br>
<p>The Fordyce provided for the well-being of the whole patron – body, mind, and spirit. It offered a museum where prehistoric Indian relics were displayed, bowling lanes and a billiard room for recreation, a gymnasium for exercise, a roof garden for clean air and sun, and a variety of assembly rooms and staterooms for conversation and reading.</p><br>
<p>In style, the building is primarily a Renaissance Revival structure, with both Spanish and Italian elements. The building is a three-story structure of brick construction, with a decorative cream-colored brick facing with terra cotta detailing. The foundation and porch are constructed of Batesville limestone. On the upper two stories, the brickwork is patterned in a lozenge design. The first floor exterior of the front elevation to the west is finished with rusticated terra cotta (shaped to look like ashlar stone masonry). The remainder of the first floor is finished with glazed brick. A marquee of stained glass and copper with a parapet of Greek design motifs overhangs the open entrance porch. The north and south end walls have curvilinear parapets of Spanish extraction. These side walls have highly decorative terra cotta windows on the first floor. On the front elevation, the fenestration defines the seven bays of the structure and provides the architectural hierarchy typical of Renaissance Revival–style buildings. The windows on the first floor are of simple rectangular design. Those on the second floor are paired six-light casements within an elaborate terra cotta molding that continues up around the arched window/door openings of the third floor. The arches of those openings are incorporated into the terra cotta frieze that elegantly finishes the top of the wall directly below the cornice. Visible portions of the roof are hipped, covered with decorative tile. Hidden portions of the roof are flat, with the exception of the large skylights constructed of metal frames and wire glass.</p><br>
<p>The first floor contains the marble-walled lobby, flanked by terra cotta fountains, which has stained glass clerestory windows and ceramic tile flooring. In the vicinity of the lobby desk are a check room, attendant dispatch room, and elevators. The north and central portions of the building house the mens facilities: cooling room, pack room, steam room, hydrotherapy room, and bath hall. The womens facilities, considerably smaller in size, are at the south end of the building. Originally there was a 30 tub capacity. Although the mens and womens bath halls both have stained glass windows in aquatic motifs, the most impressive stained glass is the massive skylight in the mens area, with the DeSoto fountain centered on the floor directly below it. The second floor originally had dressing rooms, lockers, cooling rooms, and massage and mechano-therapy departments; now it is largely occupied by wood changing stalls, with entry to a centrally located quarry-tile courtyard for sunbathing. The third floor houses a massive ceramic-tiled Hubbard Currence therapeutic tub (a full body immersion whirlpool installed in 1938 when other hydrotherapeutic pools were also added), areas for men s and women&#39; s parlors, and a wood panelled gymnasium to the rear. The most impressive space on the third floor is the assembly room (now museum) where the segmentally arched vaults of the ceiling are filled in with arched, stained glass skylights. Arched wood-frame doors surrounded by fanlights and sidelights open out to the small balconies of the front elevation. The basement houses various mechanical equipment, a bowling alley (since removed), and the Fordyce spring – a glazed tile room with an arched ceiling and a plate glass window covering over the natural hot spring (spring number 46).</p><br>
<p>Colonel Samuel W. Fordyce was an important figure in the history of Hot Springs – soldier, entrepreneur, and community leader. After experiencing the curative powers of the thermal waters in treating a Civil War injury, he moved to Hot Springs and was involved in numerous businesses including the Arlington and Eastman Hotels, several bathhouses, a theater, the horsecar line, and utilities. Fordyce had a hand in virtually every development which shaped the community and Bathhouse Row from the 1870s to the 1920s.</p><br>
<h3>Hale</h3><br>
<p>The Hale was constructed in 1892–93, replacing an earlier Hale bathhouse. The Hale was probably the first of the Hot Springs 19th-century bathhouses to offer modern conveniences to its bathers, and thus became more cosmopolitan in nature. The first Hale Bathhouse, built in 1841 by John C. Hale, was the first to provide more than just a bath as a service. Within twenty years there were at least three establishments in Hot Springs bearing Hale&#39;s name, although none of these appear to have been situated at the location of the present Hale. It is very likely that all the early structures were destroyed by raiders during the Civil War. Following the war, Hale rebuilt his bathhouse near the Alum Spring. John Hale died in 1875 and the bathhouse lease was sold or transferred by his heirs. After the Hot Springs Commission settled land claims in the area in 1879, William Nelson built a bathhouse adjacent to the existing Hale Bathhouse with the intent to replace it. The 1879 frame structure was razed in 1891 and a new building put up on the site the next year by principal owner Colonel Root. The building retains a considerable amount of its 19th-century character and probably has extensive historical archeological potential around its foundation.</p><br>
<p>Over the entrance there is a double curved parapet with the name of the bathhouse. On either side of the entrance are small windows barred by handsome wrought-iron grilles. The entrance arcade forms a wide sun room where guests could relax. An attractive great-hipped roof of red tile crowns the building on all four sides.</p><br>
<p>The first floor contains the sun porch, lobby, office, and mens and womens facilities. The south side of the building (the front half and the back two-thirds) contains the mens area with dressing room, pack room, cooling room, and bathing hall with skylight. The womens side contains similar facilities, but smaller in scale. The second floor, reached by stairs flanking either side of the lobby, has additional dressing spaces, cooling rooms, and massage rooms for men and women. The partial basement has employee dressing rooms and a display spring. The basement underwent repairs following a flood in 1956.</p><br>
<p>The floors were laid with handsome French tiling and/or marble. The bathing department had tile floors, 26 tubs, marble partitions, and nickel-plated hardware. The tubs were rolled, rimmed, and porcelain lined. The 20 ft-high ceilings provided excellent ventilation. The Hale had two needle and shower baths, one hot room, six cooling rooms, a gymnasium, and 14 dressing rooms on the mens side; the womens department contained 8 tubs, one vapor bath, one hot room, two cooling rooms, one needle bath, and six individual dressing rooms. The house included a subterranean excavation or cave in the tufa bluff directly to the rear of the building. This cave was used as a sweat room; it was known for some time as the "electric cave" until it was closed in 1911.</p><br>
<p>The building ceased operation as a bathhouse in 1978 and was closed for several years. In 1981 it was remodeled for use as a theater and concessionaire operation (snack bar, gift shops, and arcade). A new emergency exit was installed at the south end of the lobby to meet fire code regulations. The concessionaire operation failed and the building closed nine months later.</p><br>
<p>The 12,000 ft&sup2; building is primarily a brick and concrete structure, reinforced with iron and steel. It was originally built in 1883 in the Classical Revival style, with an enormous central cupola and possessed a flamboyant Victorian air. Regulations were changed in 1910 and following negotiations the building underwent extensive renovations in 1914 (design by George Mann and Eugene Stern of Little Rock). It was again remodeled in the late 1930s (design by Thompson, Sanders, and Ginocchio of Little Rock). The latter renovation changed the facade from neo-Classical revival to Mission Style in 1939–40. The building is generally rectangular in plan, and is two and one half stories in height.</p><br>
<p>By 1919, the neo-Classical building had a hierarchy of fenestration typical of that style: rectangular windows on the ground floor with arched windows on the second floor. The 1939 remodeling included changing the rectangular window openings of the sun porch at the front of the structure to arched window openings, like those on the second story, suggesting arcades of piers with capitals. The classical segmental arch over the main entrance became a simpler Spanish bell gable. The brick was covered with stucco, and wrought iron grilles were placed over the two windows flanking the entrance. The entire effect became very "California". Interior modifications in conjunction with those remodelings are unknown. An unusual engineering feature in the basement is the use of brick vaulting as the form into which concrete was poured for the floor above. In other words, the original first floor structure and basement ceiling has steel beams with shallow brick vaults between them, held in place with steel tension bars; the whole assembly is covered with a concrete topping.</p><br>
<h3>Lamar</h3><br>
<p>The Lamar Bathhouse was completed in 1923 in a transitional style often used in clean-lined commercial buildings of the time that were still not totally devoid of elements left over from various classical revivals: symmetry, cornices, and vague pediments articulating the front entrance.</p><br>
<p>The sun porch leads into the lobby, whose north, south, and east walls are covered with murals of architectural and country scenes. Facilities including cool rooms, pack rooms and bath halls are on this floor, with the mens at the north and the womens at the south. Centered in the building is the stair core that receives natural light from a skylight above. The second floor contains massage rooms, a writing room, dressing rooms, and a gymnasium. The partial basement houses attendant rooms and mechanical equipment. The building&#39;s bathhouse operations ended in November 1985.</p><br>
<p>The building is a two-story reinforced concrete structure finished with stucco on the exterior. A one-story enclosed sun porch spans nearly the entire length of the front elevation. The two-story portion is rectangular in plan. The flat roof is finished with built-up roofing material, with the exception of the metal-framed wire glass skylight. Brick and clay tiles cap the parapet edges.</p><br>
<p>The Lamar is now used as the park&#39;s giftshop.</p><br>
<h3>Maurice</h3><br>
<p>Construction began on the new Maurice Bathhouse in 1911 and was completed by 1912. The building was designed by George Gleim, Jr. of Chicago. The building was remodeled in 1915, following a design by George Mann and Eugene John Stern of Little Rock, which added the front sun parlor and made the white hygienic appearance warmer and more luxurious.</p><br>
<p>The exterior of the Maurice Bathhouse is simple yet elegant in design. The interior of the Maurice – patterned after the most successful contemporary European spas – was one of the best equipped and luxurious early-20th-century American bathhouses. The Maurice is probably the best example on Bathhouse Row of a bathhouse specially designed using concrete, metal, and ceramic elements to furnish a hygienic atmosphere and specially equipped with the ultimate in early-20th-century bathing technology. Technologically advanced heating, ventilating, and vacuum-cleaning systems were installed in the Maurice to provide a comfortable, healthy atmosphere for the bather. A therapeutic pool was installed in the Maurice in 1931 to treat various forms of paralysis (spurred on by Franklin Delano Roosevelt&#39;s treatments at Warm Springs, Georgia). At this time it was also the first of the Hot Springs bathhouses to provide specialized treatment for polio and other severe muscular and joint problems, being the only one to employ a registered physical therapist.</p><br>
<p>The first floor has the entrance through the front sun parlor, lobby, stairs and elevators, mens facilities to the south, and womens facilities to the north. The arches and fluted Ionic pilasters of the lobby re-emphasize the elegance presented by the front elevation. An addition to the lobby space is the orange neon "Maurice" sign on the wall behind the marble counter of the front desk. Neon signs were also found on the interior of the Superior and in other businesses in the immediate vicinity. Stained glass skylights and windows of mythical sea scenes in the mens and womens portions contribute to the sophistication of the building. The second floor contains dressing rooms, a billiard room with a mural, and various staff rooms.</p><br>
<p>The third floor houses the dark-panelled Roycroft Den, named after Elbert Hubbards New York Press, which promoted the Arts and Crafts movement in the United States. Also known as the "Dutch Den", it replaced a solarium during the 1915 remodeling. The den contains an inglenook fireplace with flanking benches and carved mascarons detail the ends of the ceiling beams. In 1930 the mens basement gymnasium was replaced when the den was converted to a gymnasium; originally there were both mens and womens gymnasiums in the basement.</p><br>
<p>The building, generally square in plan, is three stories in height and contains 79 rooms and nearly 30,000 ft&sup2; (including basement). The building was designed in an eclectic combination of Renaissance Revival and Mediterranean styles commonly used by architects in California, such as Julia Morgan. The brick and concrete load-bearing walls are finished with stucco on the exterior, and inset with decorative colored tiles. The front elevation of the building is symmetrical, with a five-bay enclosed sun porch set back between the north- and south-end wings. Besides the symmetry, the hierarchy of fenestration found in Renaissance Revival buildings is also present: delicate arches of the porch window and door openings on the first floor, paired nine-light windows on the second story, and enormous rectangular openings on the third floor, further illuminated by the skylight above. Much of the roof is flat, with parapets and other sections of the roof visible from ground level are covered with green tile. The skylights are metal frames with wire glass. The concrete beams on the interior of the beam and slab floor construction are exposed, finished with plaster similar to the interior walls.</p><br>
<p>Originally, this building contained 27 tubs (seven of them in the ladies&#39; department), a Nauheim bath, and hydro-therapeutic baths; it could handle 650 bathers a day. Additional tubs were installed in 1924. Battle Creek Sanitarium also employed Nauheim baths.</p><br>
<p>The Maurice represents another facet of American spa history. It provided special services, elegant appointments, and luxurious decor to attract sophisticated bathers who came to Hot Springs to fraternize with their peers. It is said that Jack Dempsey trained in the gymnasium and Elbert Hubbard based one of his Journeys booklets on W. G. Maurice and his bathhouse.</p><br>
<h3>Ozark</h3><br>
<p>The Ozark Bathhouse was completed in 1922 and designed by George Mann and Eugene John Stern of Little Rock. The building closed for use as a bathhouse in 1977.</p><br>
<p>On the interior, the central lobby has a marble counter with hallways to the mens and womens facilities on either side. Mirrors cover the walls in the lobby. The floor of the sun porch is covered with quarry tile, and most of the remaining floors in the building are finished with acrylic tile. Ceilings are concrete and painted plaster. Interior walls are brick and hollow tile finished with plaster.</p><br>
<p>The two-story 37-room Spanish Colonial Revival building, approximately 14,000 ft&sup2, is constructed of brick and concrete masonry finished with stucco. The structure is trapezoidal in plan, although the impressive front elevation is symmetrically designed with twin towers composed of three-tiered setbacks flanking the main entrance. The main entrance is accessed through an enclosed sun porch, a later addition set between two pavilions that form the visual bases of the towers above them. The windows of the pavilions have decorative cartouches above them, as well as a series of rectangular setbacks that evoke a vague Art Deco appearance. Additional wings of the building continue to the north and south of the towers. The sloped roofs over the porch and part of the second story are covered with red clay tile. The hipped roofs of the towers, also covered in red clay tile, are topped with finials. The remainder of the roof is flat, with the exception of the metal-framed glass skylight over the porch.</p><br>
<p>In 1928 concrete cooling tanks (finished with stucco on the exterior) were added to the rear of the building. The massage rooms were expanded in 1941. The cooling towers were removed in 1953 followed by a complete overhaul of the second story interior in 1956. The skylights were rehabilitated in 1983.</p><br>
<h3>Quapaw</h3><br>
<p>The Quapaw bathhouse was built in 1922 in a Spanish Colonial Revival style building of masonry and reinforced concrete finished with stucco. The most striking exterior feature is the large central dome covered with brilliantly colored tiles and capped with a small copper cupola. The building&#39;s use as a bathhouse ended in 1984 when the last contract ended. A new lease was signed with the National Park in 2007 and the Quapaw Bath house reopened as Quapaw Baths & Spa in July 2008.</p><br>
<p>The Quapaw Bathhouse was built on the sites of two earlier bathhouses, the Horseshoe and the Magnesia, which resulted in its large land assignment on Bathhouse Row. The moderately priced bathhouse services were designed to serve the public at rates set somewhere between the lower-priced Superior and the luxurious Maurice. With an original capacity of 40 tubs the building was expected to handle about three times as many bathers as the Hale or Superior.</p><br>
<p>Originally to be named the Platt Bathhouse, after one of the owners, but when a tufa cavity was discovered during excavation the owners decided to promote it as an Indian cave. It was renamed Quapaw Bathhouse in honor of a local Native American tribe that briefly held the surrounding territory after the Louisiana Purchase was made. The natural hot spring in the building&#39;s basement was publicized in promotional brochures making the cave and hot spring a popular attraction. The Quapaw had bathing facilities on its first floor making them accessible to the elderly, handicapped, and wheelchairs.</p><br>
<p>Most of the floor space is in the U-shaped first floor which has a quarry-tiled lobby with sun porches on each side and massage facilities on the north and south pavilions. The rest of the first floor is divided unequally between the mens and womens bathing facilities which occupy the north and south sides respectively. The narrow rectangular second floor, running the length of the facade and topped with the dome, has dressing rooms and a lounge. The Quapaw was the moderately priced bathhouse with none of the extras such as beauty parlors. Baths, vapors, showers and cooling rooms were provided with massages and some electro-therapy also offered. The partial basement contains a laundry (moved there in the late 1940s), mechanical equipment and a tufa chamber housing the Quapaw spring.</p><br>
<p>Directly above the entrance is a cartouche with a carved Indian head set into the decorative double-curved parapet. The Indian motif, found in several other places in the bathhouse, was used to reinforce the promotional "Legend of the Quapaw Baths" which claimed that the Indians had discovered the magical healing powers of the cave and spring which were now housed in the building&#39;s basement. The double-curved parapets at the north and south ends of the building are capped with scalloped shells that frame spiny sculpin fish. The shell and the fish both emphasize the aquatic aspect of the building. The scalloped shell is a common architectural element found in Spanish Colonial and Revival buildings. Originally the symbol was used to represent Santiago de Campostela, the patron saint of Spain, but it evolved into a mere decorative element in secular revival buildings such as this. The sculpins, originally painted gold, are now painted white.</p><br>
<p>On the front elevation a series of arched windows is interrupted by a central pavilion that forms the entrance. The arched entrance doorway is flanked by two smaller arches. Further emphasizing the entrance are two large finials that project out of the roofline of the second story, visually framing the dome behind them. The dome&#39;s mosaic is chevron-patterned with a band of rectangular and diamond patterns encircling its base. The dome rests on an octagonal base and a new compression ring was installed after 2004. The sloped roofs of the first and second floor are visible from the front elevation and are covered with red clay tiles. Portions of the roof that are not visible from the ground are flat. The interior of the building is more than 20,000 ft&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In 1928 the portico across the front of the building was winterized with glass enclosures in the window openings which was removed in the early 21st century. Acoustic tile ceilings were added in the mens first cooling room and the womens pack room. Some of the outside walls were insulated the following year. New partitions were installed in 1944 to allow more space for massage facilities. The display spring in the basement was covered with plate glass in the mid-1950s. Closed in 1968, it was reopened as Health Services, Inc. with only 20 tubs and services that were oriented towards hydrotherapy and physical therapy. It was the only bathhouse open on evenings and weekends. It regained its original name a year before it was closed in 1984 following the discovery of major damage to plaster ceilings and skylights. The exterior was sandblasted, repaired and repainted its original white color in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Work began in August 2007 to ready the building for its new use with pools added so that whole families can enjoy the spring water together and the bathhouse re-opened to the public in 2008.</p><br>
<h3>Superior</h3><br>
<p>The northernmost bathhouse on the row is the Superior which was completed in 1916 and designed by architect Harry C. Schwebke of Hot Springs, Arkansas. The building is designed in an eclectic commercial style of Classical Revival origin. The building has two stories and a basement, is L-shaped in plan and is constructed of brick masonry and reinforced concrete. It contains 23 rooms and is more than 10,000 ft&sup2;. The building was constructed on the site of an 1880s Victorian style Superior bathhouse. Brick from the previous bathhouse may have been reused in this structure.</p><br>
<p>Principal exterior architectural details are on the front elevation. The three bays are separated by brick pilasters with patterned insets and decorated with concrete painted in an imitation of ornamental tiles. Green tile medallions (paterae) are centered over the pilasters in the friezes below the first and second story cornices. Both roofs are flat and topped with brick parapets. The cornice and exterior trim are painted metal and stone.</p><br>
<p>The one-story sun porch at the front elevation projects out from the main mass of the two-story building. The first floor contains the sun porch, the lobby flanked by the stairs and the bathing facilities. The mens bath hall, dressing rooms and pack room are on the longer north end of the building. The womens facilities are smaller and located on the south side of the building. The two stairways leading upstairs have marble treads and balusters with tile wainscoting on the walls. The second floor is divided down the middle with dressing facilities, cooling rooms and massage rooms on either side for men and women with each served by its own stairs. Bath stalls are marble-walled with tile floors and solid porcelain tubs. The front desk in the lobby is marble while most of the interior hardware is brass. Walls vary from painted plaster to marble (men&#39;s hot room) and tile (bath halls). The double hung wood–frame windows have twelve lights over one light. A concrete ramp edged with wrought iron railings provides a central entrance to the structure.</p><br>
<p>A cooling tank and steel frame to support it were added to the rear of the building in 1920. The building was damaged by a flood in 1923 but the extent of repairs is not known. Some remodeling was completed on the interior in the 1930s, but again the extent of those changes is unknown. In 1957 the massage room was extended, wall radiators were installed, floors were re-tiled and modern lighting fixtures were added. Many of the original furnishings were also replaced at that time. Other changes to the building include the installation of whirlpool equipment in 1962 and air conditioning in 1971. The Superior closed in 1983 and the furnishings were sold at auction.</p><br>
<p>The Superior currently serves as a brewery and restaurant.</p><br>
<h2>Administration building</h2><br>
<p>Finishing the southern corner of the row is the Administration building which was formerly the National Park Service Visitor Center. Constructed in 1936, this Spanish Colonial Revival building was designed by architects of the Eastern Division, Branch of Plans and Design from the National Park Service. The well-detailed building has a simplified Spanish Baroque doorway framed by pilasters topped with frieze, cornice and finials flanking a second story window. The window has rusticated moldings at its sides and is in turn capped with a broken arched pediment. Windows on the first floor are screened by wrought iron grilles. On the second story there are five–light French doors that open on to wrought iron balconies. The hip roof is covered with clay tile. The air-conditioning system was replaced in 1960. The first floor was remodelled in 1966 to accommodate a lobby and an audio-visual room. Steps up to the front door were enlarged in 1965 and the hand railing may have been put in at that time. The building remains in use as the administrative core of the park.</p><br>
<h2>Other features</h2><br>
<p>Other outdoor features are within the historic district boundaries. The Grand Promenade runs in a north-south direction on the hillside behind the bathhouses, between Reserve Avenue and Fountain Street. Construction on the promenade began in the 1930s and by the beginning of World War II the promenade was a graded pathway covered with gravel. After many false starts due to planning and funding problems the promenade was finally completed in the early 1960s. The paving brick was replaced in 1984.</p><br>
<p>Fountains for public use have been located in the vicinity since the area was developed and several remain today. The fountain directly in front of the stairway into the administration building is of cast concrete and was built in 1936. A new jug fountain on the sidewalk in front of the administration building was installed in 1966. The Noble fountain at the Reserve Avenue end of the Promenade moved to this location in 1957. The Maurice Spring fountain and retaining wall just north of the Maurice Bathhouse was completed in 1903.</p><br>
<p>The original main entrance to the reservation was between the Maurice and Fordyce bathhouses directly below the Stevens Balustrade, at about the center of Bathhouse Row. The two bronze federal eagles on their stone pillars still stand guard over the old entrance, forming a gateway to the concrete path that leads between the two bathhouses up to the baroque double staircase of the balustrade. Below the eagles are the names of Secretaries of the Interior Hoke Smith (1893–96) and John Noble (1889–93) and "USA Hot Springs Reservation."</p><br>
<p>The balustrade itself is of limestone ashlar masonry and concrete construction. The central bay houses a vaulted hemicycle niche containing a drinking fountain. The upper portion of the balustrade leads to the Promenade. A bandstand was located along the top of the balustrade on the Promenade, but it was removed because of its deteriorated condition in 1958. By the early 1970s curbs and paving at the old main entrance constructed in the 1890s had been changed and Holly trees were planted to border the entryway. The areas around the bases of the stone pillars, originally paved, were grass-covered by that time.</p><br>
<p>Several other entrances were located at various points along the linear development of Bathhouse Row during the 1890s but have disappeared over the years as a result of newer construction. None were as elaborate as the Main Entrance which still gives a sense of "high style" to Bathhouse Row. Army engineer Stevens was also responsible for establishing the Magnolia Promenade in front of the bathhouses. The Promenade had double rows of magnolias during the 1890s but now a single row separates the sidewalk and the street. The varied architectural styles of the Bathhouses are pulled together by the linear greenbelts of the Magnolia Promenade and the Grand Promenade and by the smaller hedges and bushes that soften the edges of the spaces between the buildings.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archeological evidence has proven that the hot springs which later supplied the water for Bathhouse Row were used prehistorically for thousands of years. In local Indian mythology the valley of the hot springs was considered neutral ground, a healing place and the sacred territory of the Great Spirit. Close to the springs is a novaculite quarry that was used as a source for material for tools, weapons and household goods. Hernando de Soto may have visited the hot springs in 1541 in his quest for gold, silver and jewels. By 1807 the first permanent white settler was living in the area and shortly after a number of log cabins had been built in the vicinity.</p><br>
<h3>Emergence of formal bathing and health benefits</h3><br>
<p>The first bathhouses were log and wood-frame structures built from 1830 through the 1850s and were used well into the late 19th century. By the mid-19th century the bathing industry in the United States, following elegant European precedents, was establishing more complex bathing rituals. This was influenced by the mid-19th-century promotion of the field of hydrotherapy as a popular medical tool. Newer bathhouses gradually showed influences of Spanish Renaissance architecture.</p><br>
<h3>Government involvement alongside private development</h3><br>
<p>Although the area had been set aside as the first federal reservation in 1832 government acquisition of the lands did not take place until 1879. By that time private development had established its own north–south linear building pattern along the creek and hot springs.</p><br>
<p>The bathhouses were constructed along the east edge of Hot Springs Creek which was covered over and channeled into a masonry arch in 1884. This eliminated the separate bridges to each bathhouse and also improved sanitation in the area. The space above the arch was filled with dirt and planted, so that each bathhouse now had its own garden space.</p><br>
<p>From 1892 until 1900 the Department of the Interior undertook a massive beautification project to improve the character of the "National Health Resort". The main landscape thrust of the program was to provide formal gardens in front of the bathhouses and more "natural" landscaped areas behind. The range of landscaping would provide areas for restful walks with enough connection to nature and the outdoors to ensure a healthy atmosphere for recuperation. Frederick Law Olmsted&#39;s landscape architectural firm was hired to produce plans for the area but those plans were rejected or left unfinished for a variety of reasons. The project development was given to an Army engineer, Lieutenant Robert Stevens. Stevens designed the entrances to the reservation including the historic main entrance. He also conceived of the Magnolia Promenade in front of the bathhouses, the meandering upper terrace behind the bathhouses, a series of pathways, carriage roads and vest-pocket parks.</p><br>
<p>Massage services were added in the bathhouses in the late 1890s and later chiropodists.</p><br>
<h3>The Jim Crow period</h3><br>
<p>When Civil War Reconstruction ended in 1877 Jim Crow laws were created which required racial separation of facilities. As this did not formally require separation of workers, African–American workers found that although they could work in the bathhouses, they could not use them for bathing. Although the federal government regulated the bathhouses, local tradition prevailed until segregation ended in the 1960s. During this period African–Americans primarily bathed at bathhouses operated by African–Americans. In the 1880s black patrons could buy bath tickets at the Ozark Bathhouse, the Independent Bathhouse and possibly the Rammelsberg Bathhouse, but they were not allowed to bathe during the hours considered optimum by prescribing physicians, particularly from 10 A.M. to 12 noon. This briefly changed in 1890 when the Independent was purchased by A.C. Page, who operated it as an exclusively black bathhouse for less than a year. William G. Maurice then purchased it, remodeled it and reopened it as the Maurice Bathhouse, an older building than the current Maurice, serving white patrons only. An assortment of buildings and services provided bathing for African–Americans during the period, and until the 1980s most bath attendants were African–Americans.</p><br>
<p>Away from Bathhouse Row</p><br>
<p>Facilities were built to serve the Black community — but not along Bathhouse Row until the Crystal Bathhouse opened in 1904. It was located at 415 Malvern Avenue at the edge of the African–American business district. The Crystal burned in the 1913 fire. The Knights of Pythias raised the Pythian on the site of the Crystal Bathhouse in 1914. The Pythian operated successfully until desegregation in 1965 when it began operating part-time until the building finally closed in 1974. The Woodmen of the Union Building opened in 1922. This building included a first-class hotel 2000-seat theater and auditoriam for meetings of up to 600, a gymnasium, a print shop, a beauty parlor and a news–stand. After 1922 black people had two facilities available when the African American National Baptist Convention bought the Woodmen of the Union Building in 1948. In addition to the services offered by the Woodmen, the facility hosted the annual National Baptist Association Convention until the early 1980s. It closed in 1983.</p><br>
<h3>The 20th century</h3><br>
<p>By 1900, the Hot Springs Reservation landscape had both the informal Victorian landscape design and the more formal post-1880s design. A series of bathhouses had been constructed and, through the early decades of the 20th century, the parade of buildings continued. At first, wooden bathhouses were constructed and then replaced after fires or deterioration made them unsafe. Architects began choosing materials less prone to deterioration and fire. The most notable of the period&#39;s fires caused destruction of 60 blocks south of the row in 1916 with Central Avenue almost lost as well. The changes to the bathhouses over time reflected changes in the bathing industry, changes in technology, and changes in social mores. By the start of the 20th century, Hot Springs became an attraction for fashionable people all over the world to visit and partake of the baths, while maintaining its reputation as a healing place for the sickly.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, park superintendent Martin Eisele thought no new bathhouses were needed and the buildings date from that period. It had also been noted that wood buildings rotted due to the high humidity and the structures of this generation of buildings featured concrete, steel and brick.</p><br>
<p>A few other key points in the history of Bathhouse Row affected the natural and architectural landscape resulting in what remains today. In 1916, Stephen Mather, director of the National Park Service, brought landscape architect Jens Jensen down from Chicago to enhance Bathhouse Row. Under his direction lights were placed along the street promenade and various flower gardens were cultivated in front of the bathhouses. George Mann and Eugene John Stern of Little Rock were hired in 1917 to do a comprehensive plan of Bathhouse Row to guide its future development. In their view a Spanish and Mediterranean Revival architectural theme was appropriate for the "Great American Spa". The intervention of World War I stopped their grand plans although their designs and review of other bathhouse plans had a strong influence on the architectural character of Bathhouse Row. In the 1930s the design of a new hot water system for the bathhouses resulted in changes to curbs, plantings and gutters along the Magnolia Promenade. Although the creek adjoins the bathhouses the bathing and drinking water is piped from several springs and wells. The more formally aligned Grand Promenade at the rear of the bathhouses, begun in the 1930s and completed in the 1960s, replaced the meandering Victorian path and changed the architectural character of area.</p><br>
<p>The Maurice and Fordyce bathhouses were strategically located at the north and south sides of the historic entrance to the reservation. Both of these buildings provided bathing experiences for the wealthy. The elegant interiors and quality of service attracted an upper class clientele. The placement of the two most architecturally significant structures at the main entrance set the refined architectural character of Bathhouse Row. Both were luxurious in design and were equipped with sophisticated bathing facilities. The Maurice and Fordyce also offered additional attractions: The Fordyce catered to more than the client&#39;s physical needs by providing diversions such as a museum displaying prehistoric artifacts, roof gardens, a bowling alley and a gymnasium. The Maurice had its Roycroft Den, or Dutch Den, that served as a gathering place for well-to-do clients. In 1920 the Fordyce and Buckstaff added musicians playing light classical music and popular tunes.</p><br>
<h3>Changes in late 20th century</h3><br>
<p>Facilities in the bathhouses included licensing for the number of tubs along with spraying facilities such as water jets and needle showers. A doctor&#39;s prescription was required for some medical services which were provided. Although baths could be taken without the advice of a physician this practice was not recommended. It was advised that baths only be taken for diseases which they could improve along with the proper drugs for the condition. Services included mercury rubs (used since the 16th century for treating syphilis), enemas and massages. The first whirlpool bath was installed in 1937. Mercury treatments began to be replaced by the drug Salvarsan after its invention in 1908 and the clinic above the Government Free Bathhouse began furnishing Salvarsan treatments in 1920. These were finally rendered obsolete by the discovery of penicillin and its widespread manufacture after World War II allowed syphilis to be effectively and reliably cured.</p><br>
<p>After World War II the bathing industry had large crowds of visitors. In 1946 people took 649,270 hot tub baths establishing a new record. Modern antibiotics developed during the war diminished the use of the thermal waters for medical purposes. Changes in American society prevented many people from taking the long, leisurely vacations that characterized the 19th-century spa life and the automobile allowed Americans to visit more places in a single vacation. During the post-war years visitation to the park increased but visitation to the bathhouses decreased after 1946.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s society&#39;s needs had changed. The bathhouses became anachronisms as post-Victorian buildings which housed post-Victorian functions. Americans began participating more in various recreational activities and moved away from the social promenading of the spas. Spas that survived this period emphasized a total program of diet, exercise and bathing. Exercise and diet were not adequately addressed by the bathhouse operators in Hot Springs. Bathing practices in Hot Springs became identified with an older generation and few young people took the full course of 21 baths. By 1979 only 96,000 baths were given on Bathhouse Row.</p><br>
<p>The economics of this labor-intensive industry began to force the bathhouses to close down. The elegant Fordyce Bathhouse was the first to close in 1962 followed by the Maurice, the Ozark and the Hale in the 1970s. In 1984 the Quapaw, briefly reincarnated as Health Services, Inc., and the Superior closed. The Lamar closed in 1985 leaving the Buckstaff as the only bathhouse still operating on Bathhouse Row.</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>The Buckstaff, Fordyce and Administration buildings are the three buildings presently open to the public. All of the buildings on Bathhouse Row have certain architectural elements in common that contribute to the district&#39;s unity:</p><br>
<p>All of the buildings are set back the same distance from the sidewalk, and have garden areas and green spaces in front.</p><br>
<p>They are all of similar height, scale, and proportions.</p><br>
<p>The sidewalk and remaining Magnolia Promenade (there is one row of magnolia trees rather than the original two) to the west and Grand Promenade to the east tie the buildings together.</p><br>
<p>What makes that unity successful in an architectural sense is the diversity that exists within it. The eclectic combination of styles and materials provides texture and visual interest amongst them. The free use of Greek, Roman, Spanish and Italian architectural idioms emphasize the high style sought after by the planners and create a strong sense of place.</p><br>
<p>What remains on Bathhouse Row are the architectural remnants of a bygone era when bathing was considered an elegant pastime for the rich and famous and a path to well-being for those with various ailments. Today only the Buckstaff provides baths and related services. Throughout the country 19th-century bathing rituals have been replaced by late-20th-century health spas that emphasize physical fitness and diet though some provide bathing as part of the regimen. The bath is no longer the central feature of rejuvenation provided by spas in the United States. Advances in medicine and the high costs of medical care have diminished the importance of bathing in physical therapy. The need for bathhouses on the scale of Bathhouse Row no longer exists.</p><br>
<p>Bathhouse Row is the largest collection of 20th-century bathhouses remaining in the United States from the industry&#39;s peak from the 1920s through the 1940s. Bathhouse Row is also one of the few collections of historic bathhouses remaining in the United States. As an entity Bathhouse Row represents an area unique to the National Park System as an area where the natural resources historically were harnessed and used rather than preserved in their natural state. On a regional level of significance the bathhouses also form the architectural core of downtown Hot Springs, Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>Pickup truck enthusiasts have enjoyed the vintage neighborhood during Saturday night cruising among the steaming manholes and free water fountains. Several nonprofit groups have helped with projects such as restoring the Fordyce and Maurice.</p><br>
<p>According to the National Historic Landmarks Program the status of Bathhouse Row was threatened as most of the historic bathhouses were vacant and are not being maintained. Some have had "damaging uses" contributing to the severe physical deterioration of the majority of the historic bathhouses. Bathhouse Row was added to the National Trust for Historic Preservation list of "11 Most Endangered Places" in 2003. It was removed in May 2007 because the National Park Service began to rehabilitate the buildings. Hot Springs National Park now rents the renovated structures to commercial enterprises who submit an approved request for qualifications. The restoration of Bathhouse Row and commercial leasing of public structures has become a model for similar projects across the country.</p><br>
<p>Fordyce Bathhouse was restored in 1989 as the parks visitor center and the beginning of restoring all properties on Bathhouse Row. The property was closed and renovated between 2012 and 2013, with the Lamar serving as the visitor center in the interim. The Lamar was renovated into offices for park staff and Bathhouse Row Emporium, the parks official store. Ozark Bathhouse was renovated and opened as the Museum of Contemporary Art of Hot Springs in 2009. The museum closed in November 2013, and the NPS is currently receiving proposals for new occupants. Superior and Hale bathhouses went under contract in 2012 following renovation with Vapor Valley Spirits Inc. and Muses Creative Artistry Project, respectively. As of 2014, Superior Bathhouse Brewery and Distillery continues to operate, but the Hale is again available for rent. Buckstaff Bathhouse has been in continuous operation since 1912, and thus is one of the best-preserved structures on Bathhouse Row. The Buckstaff Bathhouse Company has completed the majority of maintenance and renovation that has occurred without outside funding. The Quapaw was restored by the NPS in 2004, and the renovated structure was leased to Quapaw Baths, LLC, who now operates a modern spa with pools and hot tubs. As of February 2014, the Maurice, Ozark and Hale bathhouses are all available for rent from the NPS.</p><br>
<p>Paerdegat Basin  is a channel that connects to Jamaica Bay in western Canarsie, on the eastern end of Brooklyn, New York, United States. It connects to Jamaica Bay to the south, and the north end of the basin is adjacent to the intersection of Ralph Avenue and Flatlands Avenue. "Paerdegat" derives from the old Dutch &#39;paardengat&#39;, meaning "horse gate".</p><br>
<p>Paerdegat Basin came to its present form in the late 1920s. Before then, it was a freshwater-fed tidal creek known at various times as Bestevaar Kill, Bedford Creek, and Paerdegat Creek. It was much longer than the present-day basin, and had several branches.</p><br>
<p>The waterway was an important part of a failed plan to transform Jamaica Bay into an alternative port to New York Harbor.</p><br>
<p>In January 1931, the New York City Board of Estimate approved a plan to build railroads on both sides of Paerdegat Basin, connecting the Long Island Rail Road to Canarsie Pier to the east and to Floyd Bennett Field to the west.</p><br>
<p>Paerdegat Basin was dredged to a depth of 16 feet, but was abandoned soon thereafter when the proposal fell out of favor. In the 1960s, the neighborhoods of Georgetown and Paerdegat were built near its banks.</p><br>
<p>The waterway is polluted due to the overflow location of the combined sewer system at the basins northern end. The areas sanitary sewer (from residential and industrial sources) is carried through the same system as the storm water. Typically, the full volume of that water is drained to the Coney Island Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) located on Knapp Street.</p><br>
<p>However, during periods of heavy rainfall, the Knapp Street plant does not have the capacity to treat the full volume of the water, so untreated water is forced to flow out into Paerdegat Basin. The New York City Department of Environmental Protection is working to mitigate the environmental impact of the overflow on the ecosystem. At the same time, the DEP is working with the Parks Department to repair the saltwater wetland area which lines the east and west shores of the basin. NYC Parks and NYCDEP are building a Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) facility at that location; the construction contract was awarded to the joint venture of Slattery Skanska / Gottlieb Skanska, which is a subsidiary of the global construction company Skanska. The facility serves as holding tank for the excess water, and whenever the Knapp Street plant can accept additional water, the water is pumped from the holding tank of the CSO facility back to the plant to be treated, preventing the raw untreated sewage from flowing into the Basin. The CSO facility was completed in August 2011.</p><br>
<p>Springside was the estate of Matthew Vassar in Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. It is located on Academy Street just off US 9. Detailed plans for a landscape and complex of farm buildings were drawn up by the influential Andrew Jackson Downing prior to his death. The landscaping was completed and remains Downings only surviving work, but only a few of the buildings were ever built and most have since been lost to fire and structural failure. A cottage where Vassar resided, Downings only known surviving building, had to be dismantled and removed in the mid-1970s. Its facade is on display in the New York State Museum.</p><br>
<p>Downing&#39;s landscape, in the English Landscape Garden style, has survived several serious efforts to redevelop the property in the last half-century due to opposition from local preservationists. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Matthew Vassar Estate, but the estate was not permanently protected for almost two decades, when a lawsuit was settled with the transfer of the land to its current owners, Springside Landscape Restoration.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Springsides development took up much of the last two years of Downings life, and the latter years of Vassar&#39;s. The unfinished estate was maintained and developed by several other families for a century afterward. Their descendants were more amenable to selling the land for development in the years afterward, which led in turn to the efforts to protect and restore it.</p><br>
<h3>Planning and development under Vassar</h3><br>
<p>The Springside property was the "Allen farm", first a family farm, then an ornamental farm of roughly 45 acres (18 ha), twice its current size. It takes its name from a spring on the property. It was considered as a site for a cemetery by the then-village of Poughkeepsie in 1848. He had planned to develop the property as a private summer estate himself if the cemetery plan failed, and so he contracted Downing, who lived downriver in Newburgh, to begin planning the landscape for the property.</p><br>
<p>By 1851, Downing, in collaboration with his associate Calvert Vaux and Vassar, had detailed landscape plans ready. The next year, the city of Poughkeepsie chose another site for the cemetery, ending that possibility. Downings death in a steamboat boiler explosion the following year did not halt development, as Vassar and Vaux continued along the lines Downing had established. At least two of Downings planned structures, a barn and a gardeners cottage, were built, However, the central villa that was to be the main house of the estate, a Gothic Revival work by Downing and Vaux, was abandoned (although artists renderings survive), since Vassar preferred the cottage as a residence.</p><br>
<p>As Springside continued to grow and develop, Vassar regularly opened the lands to the public until he retired to it full-time in 1867, the year before his death. It became a popular place to visit and inspired poetry and songs. One visitor, Russell Comstock, wrote:</p><br>
<h3>After Vassar</h3><br>
<p>After Vassars death, the lands were divided among several other local families, who continued to work the landscape. Judge Homer Nelson, New Yorks Secretary of State, bought the southern half of the property and renamed it Hudson Knolls. He lived elsewhere while a boardinghouse operated on the site. The northern half was purchased by local shoe manufacturer John Whitehouse, who merged it with his own adjoining property to the west of the site, retaining the Springside name. It passed to his son-in-law Eugene Howell upon his death, who kept up the landscape, at one point using it as a golf course, despite the failure of the shoe factory in 1891.</p><br>
<p>In 1901, the property was reunified under the ownership of William Nelson, who had previously purchased the southern half when Judge Nelson (to whom he was not related) died in 1881, bought Howells half following the shoe heirs bankruptcy. Nelson, the founder of the Red Ball Line shipping company, lived in the former boardinghouse with his family. He bequeathed it to his wife, and she in turn passed it on to their children.</p><br>
<p>The two daughters and son kept the property in the family and lived in various of its buildings. Gerald Nelson moved his family into the Hudson Knolls mansion, which Homer Nelsons widow had built anew in 1911 after the former boardinghouse had succumbed to a fire three years previously. Gertrude Nelson Fitzpatrick and her husband lived in the cottage, while her sister Geraldine Acker built Spring Gable for themselves in 1929 on the site where Downing had intended for Springsides main house.</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th-century preservation</h3><br>
<p>The combination of private ownership and benign neglect had preserved much of Downing and Vassar&#39;s original design for a century. This situation would change as Poughkeepsie experienced rapid growth in the years after World War II.</p><br>
<p>In 1952 development pressure began when the Poughkeepsie City School District considered Springside as a site for a new high school. and the other buildings suffered from continued decay and neglect. He pledged to protect the gatehouse and cottage, but the landscaping would have substantially altered Downing&#39;s original design.</p><br>
<p>The cottage facade was removed to an Albany warehouse by state order to preserve it in 1976; a quarter-century later it was put on display at the State Museum. Only the foundation clearing remains at the site. In 1982, a nearby condominium complex proposed nearby, and approved by the city, would have cleared most of Downing&#39;s remaining landscape. A lawsuit two years later alleging an insufficient environmental impact statement was settled in 1986 with the development of the farm portion of the property, close to Route 9 and the river, while the remaining landscape donated to a newly established non-profit organization, Springside Landscape Preservation, which continues to maintain the property.</p><br>
<p>Today, only the Carpenter Gothic gatehouse, a building not found on the original plans, survives. It has been restored to its original colors and is still used as a private residence.</p><br>
<h2>Aesthetics</h2><br>
<p>Downing had become a bestselling writer by expounding on his theories of combining that which was beautiful in nature and art. he had transplanted from nearby forests. On the ground, the curving pathways follow the contours of the land beneath them and lead to scenic views, sometimes created by planting evergreens around rock outcrops</p><br>
<p>Statuary embellishments unite the buildings and grounds, and Downing took advantage of the propertys natural drainage to create streams and fountains. Above the spring that gave the property its name, later itself named Willow Spring by Vassar, he placed a statue of a dog, since replaced by one of a young maiden. Ponds, too, were created, their irregular, natural shapes accentuated by similarly-shaped islands. Many of these features that Downing pioneered were later replicated by Vaux and his fellow associate of Downings, Frederick Law Olmsted, in their designs for Central Park and other major parks in American cities.</p><br>
<p>Today, with most of the buildings no longer extant on the site, the landscape still largely reflects Downing&#39;s original plan. Some secondary vegetation has grown in, but the pathways have been restored and many of the original trees remain.</p><br>
<p>The Downtown Santa Ana Historic Districts is a combination of local historic districts that have been listed as one entry in the National Register of Historic Places since 1984. It is a 24.5 acre area. Also known as Historic Downtown District in Santa Ana it is roughly bounded by Ross to French streets and First to Civic Center streets. The district is characterized by a number of buildings in the Art Deco style as well as two old movie houses . Orange Countys first Courthouse, now a museum, is also located here on Civic Center and Broadway streets. The Dr. Willella Howe-Waffle House and Medical Museum is also in this area and it is now home to the Santa Ana Historical Preservation Society. The Countys first theater, Walkers Theater, was built in 1909 on Main & Second streets adjacent to the old City Hall. Today, the Main Street Studio Lofts now stand where the countys first movie house used to be.</p><br>
<h2>National historic district</h2><br>
<h3>Contributing properties</h3><br>
<p>The National Register of Historic Places states that the Santa Ana Historical Downtown District is roughly bounded by Civic Center Drive, 1st Street, Ross, & Spurgeon, however, the historic district nomination form does provide a list of contributing properties and detailed maps of the included area. The district consists of two section with a total of 99 buildings that remain from the commercial code of Santa Anna. The buildings date from the late 1870s to the post earthquake reconstructions of 1934. The district is divided into two parts, north and south, due to a break in the historic integrity.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The City of Santa Ana was established in 1869 by William Spurgeon on 74.27 acre of land purchased from the old Spanish land grant, Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana. The County of Orange was formed in 1889 by William Spurgeon and James McFadden and Santa Ana was chosen as the county seat of government because of its larger growth as a town over surrounding towns namely Orange. The Old Orange County Courthouse was built in 1901 and thus the town blossomed into the countys main economic and political center. The surrounding old town buildings then became what is now Santa Anas Historical Downtown.</p><br>
<h2>Downtown Santa Ana Today</h2><br>
<p>The Historical Downtown can be thought of as being characterized by a northern Institutional region bounded by artist colonies, La Cuatro retail, as well as restaurants filling in the adjacent sections.</p><br>
<p>The Institutional area contains the Santa Ana Civic Center, which includes the Old Orange County Courthouse, the Ronald Reagan Federal Building, the United States Courthouse, the California Court of Appeal, and various city, county, state and federal facilities.</p><br>
<p>The restaurant and retail sections have three distinct business districts namely the Artists Village, Calle Cuatro Marketplace the West End and the East End.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, efforts have been made to revitalize and beautify the Downtown&#39;s retail section by continuing to attract new businesses, entrepreneurs, and the creative class looking for a true Southern California urban destination.</p><br>
<p>The major sections/corridors within the Downtown Santa Ana Historic Districts include:</p><br>
<p>The Artists Village</p><br>
<p>Historic 4th Street</p><br>
<p>Calle Cuatro Marketplace</p><br>
<p>East End</p><br>
<p>The West End</p><br>
<p>The Civic Center/Courthouse District</p><br>
<h3>Artists Village</h3><br>
<p>The Artists Village is a thriving area of art galleries, studios, creative offices, as well as home to several popular restaurants. Located on Second Street at Broadway, in the heart of historic downtown Santa Ana. The village extends from First Street to Fourth Street, and Bush Street to Birch, surrounding the Second Street Mall between Broadway and Sycamore Street.</p><br>
<p>Originally proposed in the mid-1980s, the village was meant to revitalize one of Orange County&#39;s oldest cities and bring back part of a once-thriving downtown, with dozens of historical buildings, most vacant for years.</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana City Council with the help of community activist and visionary Don Cribb and Cal State Fullerton Gallery Director Mike McGee originally conceived the Grand Central Art Center in 1994 as the anchor and catalyst for a ten-square block area in the heart of downtown designated as the Artists Village. The subsequent success of the Artists Village has helped spawn a cultural and economic renewal.</p><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, several live-work loft developments came to the downtown including Main Street Studio Lofts, East Village as well as Artists Village lofts. These artist-centric developments allowed homeowners to experience downtown living while providing them an opportunity to help the flourishing art movement continue to move forward.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Artists Village is the home to various restaurants, shops, artist galleries, as well as art institutions, including Cal State Fullerton Grand Central Art Center and the Orange County Center for Contemporary Art.</p><br>
<h3>Historic 4th Street "La Calle Cuatro", West End and East End</h3><br>
<p>4th Street (La Calle Cuatro) (East to West from Grand Ave to Sasser Park) is a historic corridor in Downtown Santa Ana lined with a variety of boutique shops, restaurants, as well as various other retail shops and services that cater to a wide audience and multiple demographics.</p><br>
<p>The centerpiece of Santa Anas Historic Downtown Corridor is the Historic 4th Street (Currently known as Calle Cuatro Marketplace). The West End sits across from the Ronald Reagan Building and is lined by lounge cafes, breakfast, lunch and dinner dining, coffee shops, Jewelers, craft brewerys, retail, barber shops, theater and enticing nightlife at The Velvet Lounge. The middle of Calle Cuatro hosts everything from travel to insurance, clothing stores, electronics, sports, shoes, and other needs from baptismal certification, to bridal and banking.The East End destinations includes restaurants such as The Playground (started by former Great Food Truck Race winner Chef Jason Quinn) as well as the refurbished Yost Theater leading the charge, many retailers and restaurateurs have followed suit and have helped this area compete with neighboring destinations including downtown Anaheim and Costa Mesa. The newest refurbished amenity is The Frida Cinema; a two-screen theater converted to an art-house theater showcasing independent film and film related programming, community-building, and education. Special events at the Frida Cinema Include, but are not limited to weekly Sunday matinee&#39;s, student films, foreign films, film festivals, and cult classics such as Rocky Horror Picture Show. All of Calle Cuatro from West to East is a pedestrian friendly outdoor mall that markets to both the local community, regional shoppers and traveling tourists. Attracting a wide audience who are looking for a place with vibrant culture, friendly people and artistic soul in the center of Orange County. Calle Cuatro is a place for those who are looking for a real alternative to indoor malls and chain restaurants.</p><br>
<p>In February 2015, The 4th Street Market opened, introducing an indoor food market to compliment the expanding food scene. Similar to the Grand Central Market in Downtown Los Angeles or the Boston Public Market, the 4th Street Market includes a variety of tenants including Portola Coffee, Electric City Butcher, as well as host an incubator/accelerator kitchen where up-and-coming food producers can utilize the Market&#39;s facilities to prepare, package, and sell their goods. The facility also is partnered with Food Centricity, which offers culinary education, acceleration and consulting services.</p><br>
<h3>The West End (Civic Center and Courthouse District)</h3><br>
<p>The West End (located between Ross Street and Broadway and West 4th Street) is a unique corridor home to many historic buildings and is located directly across the Ronald Reagan Federal Building and United States Courthouse.</p><br>
<p>Over the past years, this section of the downtown has successfully blossomed into a cultural and entertainment hub for Orange County&#39;s LGBT population, with notable LGBT-friendly destinations including Theater Out, VLVT Lounge, as well as the West 4th Street corridor playing host to the annual Orange County Pride Festival.</p><br>
<p>Located less than a quarter mile away on Civic Center Drive is the Santa Ana Civic Center, home to several institutional City and County buildings including:</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana City Hall (Civic Center Plaza)</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana Civic Center Plaza (Ross, Civic Center, Santa Ana Blvd, Flower)</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana Public Library (Civic Center Dr. & Ross)</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana Transit Terminal - OCTA (Santa Ana Blvd & Ross)</p><br>
<p>Old Orange County Courthouse (Civic Center, Broadway, Sycamore, Santa Ana Blvd.)</p><br>
<p>Orange County Courthouse (Civic Center Plaza)</p><br>
<p>Orange County Public Law Library (Civic Center Plaza)</p><br>
<p>Ronald Reagan Federal Building and United States Courthouse (4th & Broadway)</p><br>
<p>Fourth District Court of Appeals (Civic Center Plaza on the corner of Santa Ana Blvd & Ross)</p><br>
<p>Office of the District Attorney (Near the corner of Ross & Civic Center)</p><br>
<p>Mexican Consulate (Near Civic Center & Broadway intersection)</p><br>
<h2>Events in Downtown Santa Ana</h2><br>
<p>Thanks in part to its wide diversity, spirit of entrepreneurism, as well as boasting one of the youngest populations in the country (median age of 26.5), Downtown Santa Ana is host to several weekly, monthly and annual events. Some of these events include:</p><br>
<p>1st Saturday Downtown Art Walk</p><br>
<p>Cinco de Mayo Festival (Annually, on the weekend closest to May 5)</p><br>
<p>Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead (Weekend following Halloween)</p><br>
<p>DTSA Farmers&#39; Market (Sunday mornings)</p><br>
<p>Fiesta Patrias</p><br>
<p>OC Pride Festival</p><br>
<p>Patchwork Craft Fair</p><br>
<p>Santiago Art Walk</p><br>
<p>Sound Downtown</p><br>
<p>The Blading Cup (Every November)</p><br>
<h2>Downtown Santa Ana in the Coming Years</h2><br>
<p>Officials with The City of Santa Ana have stated that in the coming years they will continue to expand its growth in an effort to compete with adjacent cities looking to capture an audience looking to live in a true downtown setting. Some of these goals include:</p><br>
<p>Attracting High-End/Boutique Hotels to the Downtown</p><br>
<p>Continue to convert old office buildings (Adaptive Reuse) to upscale housing and creative office space</p><br>
<p>Convert parking lots and underutilized properties into ground up residential projects</p><br>
<p>Redevelop the 3rd/Broadway parking structure into a mixed use development (Housing or Hotel)</p><br>
<p>Implement a Street Car connecting the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center (SARTC) to the Downtown (approved by OCTA and planned to open 2019)</p><br>
<p>One-Broadway Plaza</p><br>
<p>Continue to attract the "Creative Class" as well as more influential players within the tech-industry</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Ella Island, or Ella Ø, is an island in eastern Greenland, within Northeast Greenland National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Ella Island is located at the mouth of Kempe Fjord in the northern end of King Oscar Fjord. To the east lie larger Traill Island and Geographical Society Island. The island has an area of 143.6 km ² and a shoreline of 59.6 kilometres.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lauge Koch had a cabin on the northern side of the island named Eagle&#39;s nest. The botanist Thorvald Sørensen spent the years 1931-1935 here. His observations formed the basis for his doctoral thesis in 1941.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, US forces had an installation on the island called Bluie East Four. The Sirius Sledge Patrol maintains a small base on the island which is manned only in summer.</p><br>
<p>In 1971 a meteorite was found on Ella Island, classified as a L-6 chondrite.</p><br>
<p>Mount Gee is located in the northern Flinders Ranges within the Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary, and is part of the Mount Painter inlier. It was named after a mining warden, Lionel Gee.</p><br>
<p>Recently Mount Gee came to prominence in 2008 - 2011 because of uranium exploration occurring in an area that was commonly (and mistakenly) believed at that time to be protected from all mineral exploration. This situation was altered in 2011 - 2012 when the Government of South Australia created the Arkaroola Protection Zone and passed the Arkaroola Protection Act (2012) which prohibits all mining activity in the Arkaroola Protection Zone.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>With its peak rising 600 metres above sea level Mount Gee is one of several peaks located in the visually spectacular and geologically significant range north-east of the Gammon Ranges and south of the Mawson Plateau. Mount Gee was entered on the Register of the National Estate in 1982 due to its "spectacular mass of quartz crystal and vughular, lining the cavities of crush breccias".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mineral exploration in the Mount Painter region began in the 1860s with the discovery of copper at a number of sites in the region, including the Yudnamutana copper field and the Lady Buxton mine, and numerous small diggings throughout the Mount Painter area. Professor Sir Douglas Mawson first identified samples of torbernite (a copper uranium phosphate mineral) in samples brought to him in 1910 by the Greenwood brothers from what is now called Radium Ridge. Various syndicates were formed in 1911–1935 to try to exploit the radium from Radium Ridge (immediately to the west and adjoining Mount Gee). During World War II investigations into the area of Mount Gee-Mount Painter were carried out by the Commonwealth Government, and the No.6 workings (see adjoining photo) was developed, as well as a number of workings in the East Painter Gorge (immediately to the north of Mount Gee-Mount Painter) and Yudnamutana Gorge. Sporadic exploration occurred during the 1950s adjacent to Mount Gee, culminating in the efforts of Exoil NL and Transoil NL during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It was during this exploration phase that the "Ridgetop" track was constructed. The numerous exploration tracks across the southern and north-eastern faces of Mt Gee were constructed by Exoil-Transoil at this time. Exploration ceased during the 1970s as a result of large uranium finds elsewhere and the "Three mine policy" introduced by the Federal Government in the early 1970s. CRA resumed exploration in the area during the early 1990s, focusing on the Streitberg Ridge and Armchair Basin areas, immediately to the north of Mount Gee, as well as other areas within the Arkaroola Sanctuary. Bonanza Gold Ltd pegged an exploration license over the Mt Gee area in the early 2000s. Several exploration holes were drilled into the Mount Gee-Mount Painter area before Marathon Resources took over the project and intensified the exploration efforts, focusing once again on the southern and northeastern sides of Mount Gee, by opening up many of the (still existing) Exoil-Transoil tracks. None of the uranium deposits have been proven to be economic, although Marathon Resources claim that the Mount Gee deposit complies with a JORC inferred and indicated resource of 31,400 tonnes of U3O8, potentially the sixth largest known uranium deposit in Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Tenure and legal status</h2><br>
<p>The Arkaroola Protection Zone in which Mount Gee is located, is situated in the Arkaroola pastoral lease. The pastoral lease was purchased by Reginald and Griselda Sprigg in 1967 for the purposes of "wildlife preservations and conservation of the environment", with this objective being recognised by the South Australian Government initially in 1969 and again (after a long period of limbo) in 1996 with the property being granted official status as a wilderness sanctuary.</p><br>
<p>This status was reinforced with the inclusion of the Mount Gee area within the "Environmental Class A Zone" defined in the South Australian Development Plan, which has as its objectives: "The conservation of the natural character and environment of the area" and "The protection of the landscape from damage by mining operations and exploring for new resources... Mining operations should not take place in the Environmental Class A Zone unless the deposits are of such paramount importance and their exploitation is in the highest national or State interest that all other environment, heritage or conservation considerations may be overridden. Deposits which may potentially have the required degree of significance have been identified in the following localities only:</p><br>
<p>the western face of the Heysen. Ranges; portion of the Moralana Valley; portion of the Mount Hack and Mount Uro areas; portion of the Stirrup Iron Range; portion of the east Gammons and the Mount Painter-Freeling Heights area." which includes the Mt.Painter and Mt. Gee areas.</p><br>
<p>Following the public outcry that resulted from Marathon Resources&#39; misconduct in the Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary -- including the illegal dumping of a small amount of waste in several shallow pits and the alleged excavation and removal of mineral specimens unrelated to the mineral exploration program, the South Australian government promised to introduce legislation to ban all mining activities in the sanctuary, with the premier stating that "we have decided to give the region unprecedented protection", and dismissing suggestions from that Marathon Resources that the government may be liable for compensation claims by Marathon Resources. Any and all mining in the entire Arkaroola Protection Zone is now prohibited, including Mt.Gee and the Mt.Painter inlier. This protection is provided by the South Australian Arkaroola Protection Act (2012)</p><br>
<h2>Recent developments</h2><br>
<p>Mining company Marathon Resources gave notice on or around 14 September 2007 of its intention to apply for a mining lease allowing extraction of uranium ore from Mount Gee. To satisfy the environmental objectives cited above the application forwarded by the proponent indicates an underground mine (as opposed to open-cut) which would be serviced via a tunnel allowing access to infrastructure and processing facilities located away from the immediate vicinity of the Arkaroola area, on the plains near Lake Frome. The proposal is opposed by the owners and operators of Arkaroola Wilderness Sancturary in which the proposed mine would be located as well as conservation and anti-nuclear groups.</p><br>
<p>In January 2008 the owners of Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary were alerted to environmental contamination at Mount Gee. An investigation by the South Australian Government found that around 22,800 plastic and calico bags containing exploration samples, drilling material, cardboard and paper waste, plastic jars, PVC pipe, packing and other material were buried by the drilling contractor in two large trenches approximately 35 metres long x 4 metres wide x 2.7 metres deep. Under the terms of the EWA and DEF, Marathon was required to pour remaining drill samples back down drillholes, however this is often impossible as the drillholes quickly become plugged with sample. If the samples cannot be poured back into the drillholes it is then permissible to bury them, however the sample bags and any other rubbish must be removed. Under ARPANSA regulations, any radioactive samples must be buried with a minimum of 50 cm of soil. In addition Marathon Resources have admitted in a subsequent Rectification Plan the company was required to submit that twenty drums of samples were buried in a nearby site, as well as various food packaging and personal protective equipment waste at another nearby site. There is also evidence that samples of fluorite have also been removed from the side of Mount Gee. There is no evidence to suggest that Marathon or its contractors were responsible for this. The removal of mineral specimens from the Mount Gee area has been ongoing since before the Arkaroola Sanctuary opened in the late 1960s, and collectors have prised prized examples of green and purple banded fluorite, Fluorite pseudomorphs, "nailhole Quartz" and "Cowstitite" from the outcrops of Mount Gee, aided by the continued ease of access via the well-maintained "Ridgetop Track" 4WD tourist route (see photo above).</p><br>
<p>In response to this investigation the SA Minister for Mineral Resources Development found this method of disposal of non-drill sample waste constituted a "significant breach of exploration licence conditions" and suspended the exploration licence granted to Marathon Resources to conduct mineral exploration on Mount Gee. Marathon then spent considerable time, effort and money in recovering the dumped rubbish and dril samples, which were then transported to the Hawker rubbish dump for disposal. Additionally, many of the drillsites and access tracks were rehabilitated as best as possible. However, in October 2009 the Government granted a 12 month exploration licence to Marathon Resources. On 27 October 2009, the Rann Government released a draft management Plan for the Northern Flinders Ranges, called Seeking in Balance. According to its opponents this Plan allows for mining activity right in the heart of the Arkaroola Sanctuary, including Mount Gee.</p><br>
<p>After the exploration Licence was re-granted, Marathon Mining conducted low-impact exploration, including stream sediment sampling and some geophysics for a time, concluding some time before the Arkaroola Protection Act was passed in 2012, prohibiting all mining activity in the Arkaroola Protection Zone. Marathon was awarded a $5 million compensation payment by the South Australian Government. Marathon had spent in excess of $15million on their Mt Gee exploration program.</p><br>
<p>Durhams Chapel School, also known as Durhams Chapel Rosenwald School, is a former school for African-American children located in Gallatin, Sumner County, Tennessee, that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The school was built in 1923 as a Rosenwald school, one of seven such schools eventually built in Sumner County.</p><br>
<p>The building design was a standard Rosenwald Fund plan for a two-teacher school with an industrial room. It is a one-story building on a limestone block foundation with weatherboard siding and a shingled cross-gable roof. It has decorative details inspired by Craftsman architecture, including wide-overhanging eaves and exposed rafter tails.</p><br>
<p>The school interior includes two classrooms separated by moveable partitions that could be opened to create a larger space for school presentations and community events. An industrial room projects from the center of the building. The industrial room was used for home economics instruction. Heat for the building was provided by a single wood-burning stove. Most of the original elements of the building were extant as of 2006, including cabinets, doors, moldings, hardware, chalkboards, the wood-burning stove, and a wooden stage at the southwestern end of the building. The kitchen sink, refrigerator, and cooking stove in the industrial room were installed in 1955 after the Brown v. Board of Education decision led Sumner County officials to allocate some funds to improve facilities in the county&#39;s segregated African-American schools.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Durhams Chapel community was formed by former African-American slaves in the early years after the Civil War. Durhams Chapel Baptist Church was founded in 1866 by the Reverend Peter Vertrees, a mulatto who helped establish numerous African-American churches and schools in Middle Tennessee. Land for the church and school were donated by a local man named Rodney Durham. The Durham&#39;s Chapel church building, located adjacent to the school, was completed in 1870 and is still in use.</p><br>
<p>The Rosenwald school was the third black school to be established in the Durham&#39;s Chapel community. The earliest one-room school was destroyed by fire. The second school, known as "The Little Red School House", was built before 1900 at a site east of the church building; it was used until the Rosenwald school was completed.</p><br>
<p>Throughout its history, the school was closely associated with Durhams Chapel Church, while also receiving government support. White people in Sumner County supported the schools home economics training program for girls in order to qualify them for employment as domestic servants.</p><br>
<p>The school closed in 1962, but the building still stands and is currently used by the church for meetings. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. By that time, only three of the seven Rosenwald schools in Sumner County (including Cairo Rosenwald School and Durham&#39;s Chapel School) were still standing. A restoration project was completed in 2012 at a cost of $40,000.</p><br>
<p>The Priest  is a mountain in Nelson County, Virginia. The peak of the mountain is the highest point in the county.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is on a spur off the main Blue Ridge Mountains, about 3.5 miles (5.5 km) east of Maintop Mountain, located in the Priest Wilderness of the George Washington National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The Priest stands within the watershed of the Tye River, which drains into the James River.</p><br>
<p>The north side of The Priest drains into Coxs Creek, thence into the Tye River.</p><br>
<p>The south side of The Priest drains into Rocky Run, thence into the Tye.</p><br>
<p>The west side of The Priest drains into Shoe Creek, thence into the Piney River and the Tye River.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail, a 2,170-mile (3,500-km) National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, runs across the summit of The Priest. The summit is reachable via the Appalachian Trail from a trail head along Virginia State Route 56. The hike gains 3000 vertical feet from base to summit.</p><br>
<p>Crabtree Falls flows down the Priests northwest slope. The Crabtree Falls trail and Forest Development Road 826 can be used for access to the Appalachian Trail and the Priests summit.</p><br>
<p>Maintop Mountain is a mountain in Nelson County, Virginia. The mountain is a peak on a spur off the main Blue Ridge Mountains, about 2 miles  east of Elk Pond Mountain, and about 3.5 miles  west of The Priest. The mountain is located in the George Washington National Forest.</p><br>
<p>Maintop Mountain stands within the watershed of the Tye River, which drains into the James River. The northwest side of Maintop Mountain drains into Mill Creek, thence into the South Fork of the Tye River. The northeast side of the mountain drains into the Maidenhead Branch of the South Fork. The southeast side drains into Shoe Creek, thence into the Piney River and the Tye River. The southwest side drains into the Louisa Spring Branch of the North Fork of the Piney River.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail, a 2,170-mile (3,500-km) National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, currently runs across the summit of Maintop Mountain. After a trail relocation scheduled to start May 2009, the AT will follow a less steep route and pass below the summit.</p><br>
<p>Maintop is a popular local destination because of the view from Spy Rock, a spur located about a quarter mile from the summit. Spy Rock can be reached by a steep mile and a half hike from a state fish hatchery in Montebello, Virginia</p><br>
<p>The Durant-Kenrick House and Grounds is a historic late First Period house at 286 Waverly Avenue in Newton Centre, Massachusetts, that is now a historic house museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1732, Edward Durant II purchased 91 acres of land in Newton, Massachusetts and built a country house which was completed in 1734. In 1740, Edward Durant II died, leaving the property for his son, Edward Durant III, to inherit. Edward Durant III was a prominent member of the local community and played a key role in Newton during the events leading up to the American Revolution.</p><br>
<p>In 1790, John Kenrick Esq. purchased the property, adding to his significant landholdings in Newton. Upon his father&#39;s death, John A. Kenrick inherited the former Durant property in 1833. Along with his brother, William, John A. Kenrick started the Kenrick Nursery, one of the largest plant nurseries in New England at the time. The Kenrick Nursery encompassed much of the surrounding area, including Farlow Hill and the land that is now the Newton Commonwealth Golf Course. From the 1840s up until 1900, the Kenricks were involved with many land transactions, sometimes acquiring new property but increasingly selling off their large estate.</p><br>
<p>Around 1900, Austin Holden purchased the remaining.6 acres of land and began to restore the house. In 1912, F. Clarke Durant, a descendent of the original builders, purchased the land. Eleven years later, Arthur Stone Dewing, also a Durant descendant, purchased the land and house in 1923. Dewing was a businessman and a Harvard professor with a passion for historic preservation. Arthur, his wife Frances, and their three daughters would spend their summers at the Durant-Kenrick property while maintaining a permanent residence in nearby Cambridge, Massachusetts during the rest of the year.</p><br>
<h2>Current Status</h2><br>
<p>In 1985, Arthur Dewing&#39;s children established the Durant Homestead Foundation and opened the house to the public. In 2011 Historic Newton/ The Newton Historical Society received the house and property and undertook an extensive restoration and reinterpretation of the property. Finally, in January 2014, Durant-Kenrick House and Grounds opened to the public, offering an interactive museum depicting the history of three families that lived and worked on this property for a period of three hundred years.</p><br>
<p>The house was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on June 13, 1976.</p><br>
<p>Elk Pond Mountain is a peak of the Blue Ridge Mountains, on the border of Nelson and Rockbridge counties in Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Elk Pond Mountain is flanked to the east by Maintop Mountain, and to the southwest by Rocky Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Elk Pond Mountain stands within the watershed of the James River, which drains into Chesapeake Bay.</p><br>
<p>The east side of Elk Pond Mtn. drains into the North Fork of the Piney River, thence into the Tye River and the James River.</p><br>
<p>The northeastern side of the north end of Elk Pond Mtn. drains into Mill Creek, thence into the South Fork of the Tye River.</p><br>
<p>The northwest side of the north end of Elk Pond Mtn. drains into the headwaters of Irish Creek, thence into the South River, the Maury River, and the James River.</p><br>
<p>The west side of Elk Pond Mtn. drains into Nettle Creek, thence into Irish Creek.</p><br>
<p>Elk Pond Mountain is in the George Washington National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The Blue Ridge Parkway traverses the west side of Elk Pond Mountain at elevations of about 3,100 ft.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail, a 2,170-mile (3,500-km) National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, runs along east side of Elk Pond Mtn.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Ross Reeves Octagon House was originally located between Wilkinson, Indiana and Willow Branch, Indiana. It was moved to its present location in 1997. It is currently located at 400 Railroad Street in Shirley, Indiana.</p><br>
<p>When Jane and Elijah first homesteaded their farm, they built a log cabin on the highest point of the land. This was later replaced by a frame house which was torn down at the time the Octagon house was built. When the log cabin was built, two trees were planted in front of the house- one on each side of the gate. These were called wedding trees and as they grew, the two became one as their branches met in the middle. The one tree represented the groom and the second represented the bride. Two new trees were planted at the current location.</p><br>
<p>The Octagon house was built in 1879. In 1876, three years after her husband&#39;s death- Jane Ross Reeves found the plans in a magazine. She liked it so much she decided she had to have one. This house was built at a cost of somewhere between $2300 and $2500. It was built by a contracting company in Fortville, Indiana. When the house was completed, it was paid for in full from silver dollars that she (Jane Ross Reeves) had saved in a shoe box.</p><br>
<p>The house is two stories of wood frame construction with a pyramidal roof. The house has little architectural ornamentation. The house has 16 rooms and every room has a closet. There are four large rooms and four small rooms on each floor. When the house was moved, it was placed over a full basement. The basement has 10 ceilings and is 45 wide in every direction. Their house had four chimneys. One chimney serviced 4 rooms- 2 up and 2 down. The chimneys were removed to reduce weight when being moved. Even after their removal, the house still weighed 90 tons! The chimneys were rebuilt from the floor of the attic up to their original height so the house looks the same from the outside. The chimney chases were rebuilt on the inside of the house, so it looks exactly as it was originally built. These chases now contain the utilities. (wiring, plumbing, etc.)</p><br>
<p>There are only five octagon houses left standing in the state of Indiana. The Reeves Octagon House is deemed to be the most important one as it has never been altered or changed with the exception of the porch; it now goes around the entire house.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Ross Reeves Octagon House Foundation&#39;s President, Darrell Deck is the source of the information above.</p><br>
<p>Rancho Los Encinos  was a Spanish grazing concession, and later Mexican land granted cattle and sheep rancho and travelers way-station on the El Camino Real in the San Fernando Valley, in present-day Encino, Los Angeles County, California. The original 19th-century adobe and limestone structures and natural warm springs are now within the Los Encinos State Historic Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>The name of the rancho derives from the original designation of the Valley by the Portola expedition of 1769: El Valle de Santa Catalina de Bononia de los Encinos, with encino being the Spanish name for Oaks, after the many native deciduous Valley Oak (Quercus lobata) and evergreen Coast Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) trees across the valleys savannah, which are still found on the parks property.</p><br>
<p>The natural springs on the land were used by the Tongva people. Portola camped here, and the springs were a necessary stop for travelers on El Camino Real, and the Ventura Road, which became Ventura Blvd.</p><br>
<p>Francisco Reyes, Alcalde, or mayor of Pueblo de Los Angeles from 1793-1795, established the original Rancho Encino in the northern San Fernando Valley. In or around 1797 Reyes ceded this land to the Roman Catholic Church to be the site of Mission San Fernando Rey de España, and relocated his Rancho Encino to one square league (4,460 acres) of land in the southern valley adjacent to El Camino Real and between the Los Angeles River and Santa Monica Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Reyes was accused of mistreating the Mission Indians who worked his rancho, and in 1845 Mexican Governor Pio Pico re-granted the property to three of the Tongva Native American workers, recorded as Ramon, Francisco, and Roque, who raised cattle and corn on their regained land.</p><br>
<p>In 1849, Don Vicente de la Osa or de la Ossa, the original owner of the nearby Rancho Providencia, acquired the Tongva Indian&#39;s interests in the property. His wife was Rita de Guillén de la Ossa, daughter of Eulalia Pérez de Guillén Mariné of Rancho San Pascual. He built a 9-room adobe farmhouse in 1849-1850 that still stands near the spring. He took formal title to the Rancho under USA California law in 1851.</p><br>
<h3>Boom and bust</h3><br>
<p>The California Gold Rush of 1849 created a near-insatiable demand for beef, which was raised on the ranchos of southern California, including Rancho Los Encinos, and driven on the hoof to northern markets serving the gold fields. But the boom market in Southern California began to decline as early as 1855 as it became profitable to drive cattle and sheep to California from the midwest and Texas, and the drought of 1856 increased the pressure on the ranchos.</p><br>
<p>The De La Osa rancho was a popular stopping point for El Camino Real and Camino Nuevo travelers, who could expect hospitality at the ranch house. The Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach route between St. Louis, Missouri and San Francisco via Fort Yuma and Los Angeles passed through the rancho, making its first run in the fall of 1858. A new stagecoach route opened in 1861, diverging from the old El Camino Real at Rancho Los Encinos and heading for Santa Barbara via the Santa Susana Stage Road over Santa Susana Pass in the Simi Hills. The rancho was a stagecoach stop on it until the new railroad replaced Butterfield stages in 1875.</p><br>
<p>With the cattle market in collapse and besieged by mounting debts, in 1859 De la Osa converted his house into a roadside inn and began to charge patrons for his legendary Californio hospitality. Don Vicente De la Osa died in 1861, and his widow Rita sold the property to James Thompson in 1867, who raised sheep on the rancho for two years. Thompson in turn sold the property to two Basque brothers, Eugene and Phillipe Garnier, in 1869. Eugene Garnier built a two-story limestone farmhouse similar to the former family home in the French Basque Country, and a brick-lined pond collecting the spring&#39;s outflow and shaped like a Spanish guitar. The Garnier brothers also raised sheep on the property, and were known for the fine quality of their fleece, but they in turn became overextended and lost the property to foreclosure in 1878.</p><br>
<p>The property changed hands three times in the next twenty years, having been acquired by Simon Gless a Basque who was married to a French woman and four other native women; eventually, he sold the property to his Basque father-in-law, Dominique (Domingo) Amestoy, in 1889. The fields were used for wheat farming, as was most of the Valley after Isaac Newton Van Nuys introduced dryland farming there. The Amestoy family lived on the property until 1945, selling off 1,170 acre of land in 1916 that would become the community of Encino, and further subdividing the ranchlands thereafter.</p><br>
<p>In a story typical of the San Fernando Valley&#39;s rapid urbanization, the adobe was used as the sales office for the post-war subdivisions surrounding it—and was to be torn down and used as commercial property. Concerned neighbors led a fight to have the adobe, and the spring, to be purchased by the State of California.</p><br>
<p>The last remaining parcel, including the historic buildings and the spring, was acquired by the state of California in 1949.</p><br>
<h2>Los Encinos State Historic Park</h2><br>
<p>All of the historic buildings in the park were heavily damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The De la Osa adobe and the stone Garnier building have been repaired and restored, with the Garnier building now serving as a visitor center with historic photographs and exhibits of the rancho&#39;s past. The are also online. The 1902 river stones and mortar walled, double-roofed, food-cool storage buildings built for the Amestoys still show signs of the earthquake and are used for Park storage.</p><br>
<p>A major Tongva village or rancheria site, carbon-dated at over 3,000 years old, was discovered in 1984 directly across Ventura Boulevard during excavation for a new structure. Archeologists found two million artifacts, such as lithic stone tools, shel and stone beads, and arrowheads, and ancient burial remains. The park displays some of the pre-contact artifacts.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the State of California threatened to close the park, because the park makes no revenue to equalize the employees needed.</p><br>
<p>Through community effort and the Encino Neighborhood Council, an anonymous donor was found who volunteered $150,000 (pending as of</p><br>
<p>1/12) to keep the park open.</p><br>
<p>The park is located at 16756 Moorpark Street, Encino, California, 91436-1068, and is open to the public 10 AM to 5 PM, Wednesday through Sunday. There is a pedestrian entrance on Ventura Boulevard.</p><br>
<h2>Map gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Riley Birthplace and Museum, one of two homes called the James Whitcomb Riley House on the National Register of Historic Places, is located at 250 West Main Street in Greenfield, Indiana, twenty miles  east of downtown Indianapolis.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Riley Birthplace and Museum marks where noted Hoosier poet James Whitcomb Riley was born and lived during his boyhood. The house was built by the authors father Reuben Riley, a local attorney in 1850, and Greenfields first mayor.Indiana State Museum, Educational Opportunities for Students:</p><br>
<p>James Whitcomb Riley, “The Hoosier Poet” Riley was not actually born in the house, but a cabin on the site of the property (October 7, 1849). Reuben Riley saw that his cabin was not large enough for all five members of his family, so he worked on the house for three years, often cannibalized the cabin to make improvements on the house during its construction; the winding stairway to the second floor best typifies this cannibalization.</p><br>
<p>Although it was along the National Road, the residence was described as being near lots of woodland animals, but very few people. The front porch had two doors. The left led into the family parlor, while the right door led to Reuben Rileys law office. The influx of visitors to Reuben Rileys office gave James Whitcomb Riley a chance to learn how to entertain several people at a time with speeches and tales, as his father had. Visitors such as a ragged man and an orphan girl, Mary Alice Smith (Little Orphant Annie), inspired James Whitcomb Riley to write the poems he would later tell in his adulthood. Reuben had organized a militia of Greenfield residents during the American Civil War. However, his involvement with the War hurt his law career, forcing him to sell the house in 1870. In 1893 James Whitcomb Riley bought the house, but kept his residence in Indianapolis, at what is today James Whitcomb Riley Museum Home. Although James Whitcomb Riley never again lived in Greenfield house, his brother John and John&#39;s wife resided there; James would often visit them. It was on one of these visits in 1898 that James Whitcomb Riley called Greenfield "the best town outside of Heaven".</p><br>
<p>Before his death in 1916, Riley wrote over 1000 poems, including "Little Orphant Annie", "When the Frost is on the Punkin", and "The Bear Story". During his time, he was regarded as more important than Mark Twain.</p><br>
<p>The city of Greenfield bought the property in 1936, creating the Riley Old Home Society to run the property.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The Riley home is now operated as a museum by the Riley Old Home Society and the City of Greenfield, through the Greenfield Parks and Recreation Department. The museum is open to visitors, several thousand a year, from April through November, usually closed for the winter. An adjacent home, the Mitchell House, was where James Whitcomb Rileys poem publisher John Mitchell lived. Mitchells former domicile is used as a museum, allowing for Riley&#39;s home to be kept as it would have looked like during his time of residence.</p><br>
<p>The garden behind the Riley house is frequently enjoyed by visitors during the seasons of spring and summer. Since 1991 this garden has been developed and maintained by the Greenfield Herb Society.</p><br>
<p>An annual festival celebrating James Whitcomb Riley&#39;s connection with Greenfield is celebrated in first Thursday through Sunday in October.</p><br>
<p>The Riley house is located along the old National Road, which is now USA Route 40.</p><br>
<p>Torre  is the highest point of Mainland Portugal, and the second most elevated of the Portuguese Republic . This point is not a distinctive mountain summit, but rather the highest point in a mountain range. Torre has an unusual feature of being a summit that is accessible by paved road, the Regional Road 339 , formerly National Road 339 .</p><br>
<p>It is located in a mountain range named Serra da Estrela, on the border between the municipalities of Seia, District of Guarda and Covilhã, District of Castelo Branco.</p><br>
<p>The actual elevation of this area is 1,993 metres (6,637 feet), according to measures realized by the Instituto Geográfico do Exército (a military organization). Right in the highest point of the mountain range, situated in the middle of a roundabout, near a road that connects the cities of Seia and Covilhã, a trig point that shows the highest point in Serra da Estrela was built.</p><br>
<p>Near Torre, there are a restaurant, stores with typical products of this region, like the Serra da Estrela cheese, and a ski center called Vodafone Ski Resort, situated in the municipality of Seia. However, the nearest urban area of this place is the city of Covilhã, 20 km away, and the nearest accommodations are situated in the village of Penhas da Saúde, 10 minutes away.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>The Northern Pacific Depot in Aitkin, Minnesota, United States, is a brick passenger depot built on the Northern Pacific Railway mainline in 1916. The rail line is now part of the BNSF Railway. The depot symbolizes the importance of the railroad in Aitkin&#39;s growth and development.</p><br>
<p>The railroad line was initially built in 1871. By the early 1900s, Aitkin was emerging as the region&#39;s leading supply center, and the old wood-framed depot was considered grossly inadequate. The railway started construction of the new brick depot in 1915. It was built in the Mission Revival style with cut-stone trimmings and a German tile roof. Passenger traffic ended in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The building is now occupied by the Aitkin County Historical Society as the Depot Museum. Exhibits focus on the heritage of Aitkin County, including riverboating on the upper Mississippi, Native American culture and immigrant pioneers.</p><br>
